<p>Mount Iraya, is an active volcano on Batan Island and the highest point in the province of Batanes, Philippines.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Iraya is located on Batan Island, one of the Batanes Islands, in the province of Batanes, in the Luzon Strait, north of the island of Luzon, in the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>It is the northernmost active volcano in the Philippines.</p><br>
<h2>Physical features</h2><br>
<p>Iraya is a heavily forested stratovolcano, with an elevation of 1,009 m asl, and a base diameter of 5,500 m.</p><br>
<p>Adjacent volcanic edifice is Mount Matarem.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic activity</h2><br>
<p>Mount Iraya last erupted in 1454, and the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Phivolcs) considers it as one of the active volcanoes in the Philippines.</p><br>
<p>In 1998, volcanologists recorded seismic swarms which led them to form a monitoring network on Batan Island for several months. After the swarms of tremors had diminished, the temporary stations in Barangay San Joaquin in Basco, Batanes and another near the crater, were pulled out. Seismicity or any activity relating to Iraya is still monitored by the Basco Seismological Station.</p><br>
<p>Volcanoes of the Philippines are all part of the Pacific ring of fire.</p><br>
<p>The Nerodimka , is a river in the Nerodimlje region dividing into two irreversible branches. The left branch flows into the Black Sea, and the right branch flows into the Aegean Sea.</p><br>
<p>For other cases see List of unusual drainage systems.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Nerodimka river rises in the Lake Peak and is formed by two main tributaries, one flowing from the Nerodimka mountain and the other one from the Crnoljeva mountain. They join in the village of Nerodime e Epërme (Gornje Nerodimlje). From there it flows to a dam, where the first bifurcation occurs at 42.369151&deg; latitude, 21.080277&deg; longitude. The northern branch flows into the Sitnica river and ultimately into the Black Sea via the Ibar, Morava and Danube rivers; while the main, southern branch joins with another branch of the Nerodimka river and together continue the journey to the Aegean Sea via the Lepenac and Vardar Rivers.</p><br>
<p>After the major settlement of southern Kosovo, the town of Ferizaj, the Nerodimka turns south and flows next to the villages of Varoš Selo, Kamena Glava, Stari Kačanik, Stagovo and Runjevo, before it reaches the town of Kačanik and empties into the Lepenac river.</p><br>
<p>The bifurcation is actually an artificial phenomenon, as the connection was achieved by digging an artificial canal, but the downstream water flow is still natural. In the 14th century, during the reign of king Milutin, a canal connecting the Sazlija pond and the river Nerodimka was dug, creating an artificial bifurcation, since the Nerodimka flows to the south into the Lepenac river and thus belongs to the Aegean Sea drainage basin, while the Sitnica (which is an outflow of the Sazlija) flows to the north, into the Ibar river and belongs to the Black Sea drainage basin. After World War II, the canal was covered with earth again as it was previously mudded as a result of the lack of maintenance.</p><br>
<p>These water flows have separate impact in annual temperatures of this region. The average annual temperature is 9.9 °C. Warmest months are July and August, with average temperature 18.9 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average temperature -2.6 °C. Maximum air temperature is 32.5 °C in July, while the minimum -14.0 °C in January.</p><br>
<p>Atmospheric precipitation also plays a role of abundance water in Nerodimka river. The average of rainfalls for every month is 73.3 mm. Months with the most rainfalls are April–May, 105.6 mm, while at least August with 42.2 mm.</p><br>
<h2>Development strategies and protection</h2><br>
<p>The bifurcation of Nerodimka is under state protection since 1979, and it is declared as a strict wildlife sanctuary, first category according to (IUCN)</p><br>
<p>Official emblem of the municipality of Ferizaj contains the visual representation of the Nerodimka river bifurcation.</p><br>
<p>This phenomenon is attractive for researchers and visitors and has great importance to education, science and tourism. The western part of the city offers ideal conditions for the formation of public green spaces (parks), for the development of tourism and recreation. Branch of Nerodimka River enters within the city, extensive recreational area that is also available to residents of Uroševac bifurcation area, waterfall and the merger of the two rivers.</p><br>
<p>The Nerodimka drains an area of 229 km² itself, and it is not navigable.</p><br>
<p>Col de la Bonette  is a high mountain pass in the French Alps, near the border with Italy. It is situated within the Mercantour National Park on the border of the departments of Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. The road over the col is the seventh highest paved road in the Alps.</p><br>
<h2>Col de Restefond</h2><br>
<p>The passage over the Col de la Bonette is often mistakenly referred to as the Col de Restefond, and in the 2008 Tour de France the summit was referred to as the Cime de la Bonette-Restefond. Stage 16 of the tour approached the summit from Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée (south-east), and after reaching the Col de la Bonette, took a loop round the Cime de la Bonette reaching the summit of 2,802 m, which is the highest point reached by the Tour de France, before re-passing the Col de la Bonette. On the descent to Jausiers, the actual Col de Restefond was then passed on the right approximately 1 km from the summit.</p><br>
<h2>“Highest road in Europe”</h2><br>
<p>The two kilometre long teardrop shaped loop around the Cime de la Bonette peak (2,860 m) from either side of the pass is the highest paved through route in the Alps.</p><br>
<p>A signpost at the foot of the climb makes the claim "Col de la Bonette - Restefond, 2802 m above sea level, highest road in Europe". This claim is incorrect for various reasons. The actual Col de la Bonette rises to 2,715 m, but there are three Alpine road passes whose altitudes are higher: Col de l&#39;Iseran (2,770 m), Stelvio Pass (2,757 m) and Col Agnel (2,744 m). There is also the road to Veleta (Sierra Nevada), Spain (near Granada) which reaches 3,392 m but it is not a through road.</p><br>
<p>The road around the Cime de la Bonette reaches an altitude of 2,802 m, but this is not a "pass", but merely a scenic loop. It is, however, the highest asphalted road in France and is the highest through road in Europe.</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>From the south, the climb starts at Saint-Etienne-de-Tinée and is 26 km long. Over this distance, the climb is 1,652 m (an average percentage of 6.4%). On the climb to the actual Col de la Bonette, there is one short section at over 10%, but on the loop around the Cime de la Bonette, the gradient reaches 15%.</p><br>
<p>From the north, the climb starts at Jausiers and is 24.1 km long. Over this distance, the climb is 1,589 m (an average percentage of 6.6%), with the steepest sections at 9%.</p><br>
<p>On both sides mountain pass cycling markers are placed every kilometre. They indicate the current height, the distance from the start, the distance to the summit, the average slope in the following kilometre, the number of the street, as well as the distances to villages and cities connected by the pass. They provide information for cyclists going up- and downhill.</p><br>
<h2>Tour de France</h2><br>
<p>The pass has featured in the Tour de France four times (1962, 1964, 1993 and 2008). In 1962 and 1964, the race was led over the summit in both years by Federico Bahamontes, approaching from the south in 1962 and from the north in 1964. Robert Millar led over the summit (from the north) in 1993.</p><br>
<p>In 2008 John-Lee Augustyn led over the mountain, before falling on the descent to Jausiers. He did, however, receive 5,000 Euros for the leader over the highest point of the Tour, also known as the "Souvenir Henri Desgrange".</p><br>
<h3>Appearances in Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>The Tha Chin river  is a distributary of the Chao Phraya river, Thailand. It splits near the province of Chai Nat and then flows west from the Chao Phraya through the central plains, until it empties into the Gulf of Thailand in Samut Sakhon Province.</p><br>
<h2>Regional names</h2><br>
<p>The Tha Chin river has many regional names. After it splits from Chao Phraya river at Chai Nat, it is called Makham Thao River; while passing Suphan Buri it is the Suphan River; while passing Nakhon Pathom it becomes the Nakhon Chai Si river. Only near its mouth at Samut Sakhon does it become the Tha Chin River, named after the former name of Samut Sakhon. The name Tha Chin is the convention used in most scientific documents.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Tributaries of the Tha Chin include the Kra Sieo, Yang, Tawip, Chorakhe Sam, Bang Len, and Chin Si Rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Tha Chin basin</h2><br>
<p>The Tha Chin drains a total area of 13,681 km&sup2;. The Tha Chin Basin is part of the Chao Phraya Watershed.</p><br>
<h2>Health of the river</h2><br>
<p>The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) has reported that the water quality of rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the Tha Chin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality in the river in 2015 as "poor". The PCD findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Col de l&#39;Iseran  is a mountain pass in France, the highest paved pass in the Alps. A part of the Graian Alps, it is situated in the department of Savoie, near the border with Italy, and is crossed by the D902 roadway.</p><br>
<p>The pass is part of the Route des Grandes Alpes. It connects the valley of the Isère (Tarentaise) and the valley of the Arc River (Maurienne) between Val-d&#39;Isère in the north and Bonneval-sur-Arc in the south. The north side of the pass road is well built with a number of galleries and tunnels, with a maximum grade of 12 percent.</p><br>
<p>On the northern side are the popular ski resorts of Tignes and Val-d&#39;Isère.</p><br>
<p>The pass is only accessible by road during the summer months. In the winter it falls within the Espace Killy ski area and is easily accessed by a series of pistes and ski lifts.</p><br>
<p>The Col is also accessible by off-road mountain paths and is the highest point both of the Alpine GR5, a long-distance trail from Lake Geneva to Nice, and of the similar Grande Traversée des Alpes. The steep descent to the south, notable for its waterfalls, enters the Vanoise National Park here.</p><br>
<h2>Details of the climb</h2><br>
<p>From the north the road goes up and down and through tunnels past the lake of Tignes. Starting from Bourg-Saint-Maurice, the climb to Col de lIseran is 48 km. Over this distance, the road (D 902) ascends 1,955 m, at an average grade of 4.1%. The last 15 km starts at Val-dIsère and climbs 895 m at a consistent average of 6%.</p><br>
<p>From the south, the climb starts at Lanslebourg-Mont Cenis and is 32.9 km in length, ascending 1,371 m at an average grade of 4.2%. The final 13.4 km starts at Bonneval-sur-Arc and rises 977 m at an average gradient of 7.3%, with several sections in excess of 10%.</p><br>
<p>On both sides of the Col de l&#39;Iseran mountain pass cycling milestones mark the distance to the summit, the current altitude, and the average slope in the following kilometre.</p><br>
<h2>The Tour de France</h2><br>
<p>The Col dIseran was first used in the Tour de France bicycle race in 1938. The first rider over the summit was Felicien Vervaecke but on the descent he was passed by Gino Bartali. Bartali had taken the leaders yellow jersey from Vervaecke the previous day and retained it to the finish in Paris.</p><br>
<p>The first mountain time trial was introduced to the Tour in 1939. It went over the Col d&#39;Iseran from Bonneval-sur-Arc to Bourg-Saint-Maurice and was won by Sylvere Maes by four minutes.</p><br>
<p>The pass has been used five times on the Tour de France since 1947. It was scheduled to be used in 1996 but was left out at the last minute due to bad weather. As a result of snow on both the Col de lIseran and the Col du Galibier the scheduled 190 km stage from Val-dIsère to Sestriere in Italy was truncated to a 46 km sprint from Le-Monetier-les-Bains. Bjarne Riis claimed the sprint, resulting in him taking the yellow jersey which he retained to the finish in Paris.</p><br>
<p>Col de lIseran was most recently crossed in 2007 in stage 9, which started from Val-dIsère and went 159.5 km to Briançon on 17 July.</p><br>
<h3>Appearances in Tour de France</h3><br>
<p>The St. Croix Boom Site is a historic and scenic wayside on the St. Croix River in Stillwater Township, Minnesota, United States. It commemorates the location of a critical log boom where, from 1856 to 1914, timber from upriver was sorted and stored before being dispatched to sawmills downstream. The site was developed as a roadside park along Minnesota State Highway 95 in the 1930s. In 1966 it was designated a National Historic Landmark for its national significance in the theme of industry. It was nominated for being the earliest, most important, and longest serving of the log storage and handling operations that supported Minnesotas major logging industry. Virtually no traces remain of the sites original buildings and structures.</p><br>
<h2>Origin</h2><br>
<p>The vast white pine forests of the St. Croix River Valley became a major target for logging in the mid-19th century. The St. Croix and its tributaries provided easy transport downstream. Moreover the St. Croix flowed directly into the Mississippi River, making a convenient route to the burgeoning communities all down the length of the nation plus the numerous inland settlements they served. Since multiple logging companies sent their timber down the same waterway, each company had a distinctive "timber mark" or "owner&#39;s mark" they stamped into the bottom of each log. In the 1830s and 40s the St. Croix harvest was collected and sorted downstream on an honor system, but the increasing number of companies and logs soon necessitated a more official approach.</p><br>
<p>In 1851 the Minnesota Legislature chartered the St. Croix Boom Company, granting them the right to collect all logs at a certain point on the river, sort them according to mark, and deliver them to the appropriate owners in return for 40 cents per thousand board feet (17 cent/m³). The Boom Companys leadership was largely composed of men from Marine, Taylors Falls, and Osceola, so the boom was initially located near Taylors Falls. However there were two major problems with this. One was that this was upstream from the mouth of the Apple River, the St. Croixs second-most productive tributary. The other was that Stillwater was already becoming the region&#39;s primary lumber town, and mills there had to pay extra to have their logs timber rafted 21 mi downstream.</p><br>
<p>In 1856 the Boom Company ran into financial trouble, so a syndicate of Stillwater-based lumbermen led by Isaac Staples seized their opportunity to purchase and relocate the operation. Staples, familiar with log booms from his native Maine, picked an ideal site for the new boom. It was 3 mi north of Stillwater in a stretch of the river that was narrow, high-banked, and naturally divided into multiple channels by small islands.</p><br>
<h2>Operation</h2><br>
<p>The St. Croix Log Boom used a series of booms—logs chained end-to-end across the river—to catch timber as it floated downstream. Workers called "boom rats" moved among the booms on catwalks, noting the timber marks stamped on the incoming logs and sorting them into holding pens. When enough of one brand were gathered, the boom workers would form them into a timber raft, which a "fitting-up crew" would steer downstream to the correct mill. Some receiving mills were as far south as St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>The boom operation was designed in such a way that it could handle both heavy and light volumes efficiently. In mid-summer logs could be backed up for 15 mi above the boom, and hundreds of workers put in long days. However in slow times the whole operation could run with a skeleton crew, leading to considerable labor savings.</p><br>
<p>In 1890 the Boom Company completed the Nevers Dam 11 mi upstream from Taylors Falls to control the flow of logs even further.</p><br>
<h2>Impact</h2><br>
<p>The massive volume of logs on the river and the centrality of the St. Croix Boom Company to the all-important lumber industry led to major regional impacts. At peak times the log-choked river was impassable to steamboats. Travelers couldnt move upstream or downstream, farmers couldnt ship their goods to market, and towns like Taylors Falls were starved economically. Jumbles of logs could block drainage, flooding riverside farms and homes. The Boom Company did endeavor to provide teams and wagons to portage passengers and goods around blocked areas, transferring them to small steamboats upstream so they could continue their journeys. In the 1860s and 70s the company worked on a shipping canal to bypass the boom site.</p><br>
<p>Millers, dependent on the Boom Company to deliver their logs, complained bitterly about any delays as well as the cost of the service. When logs weren&#39;t coming in, work was scarce, money was tight, and everyone in the lumber towns felt the pinch. The Boom Company had such economic and political clout that it became known as "The Octopus".</p><br>
<p>However the Boom Company made it possible for 150–200 lumber companies to work the St. Croix and its tributaries. Feeding all the lumberjacks, log drivers, and sawmill workers fueled the agricultural sector throughout the river valley. When the 8,500 square miles valley had been denuded of its salable timber, and the St. Croix Boom closed on June 12, 1914, it had processed over 15.5 billion feet of logs. Thanks to the quantity of timber, generous sorting fee enshrined in state law, and ability to scale labor efficiently, the St. Croix Boom was the most profitable in the entire Midwestern United States.</p><br>
<h2>Wayside history</h2><br>
<p>The St. Croix Boom Site was one of the state&#39;s first sites to receive a roadside historical marker when the Minnesota Department of Highways began collaborating with the Minnesota Historical Society around 1929. A few years later as the Department of Highways began establishing scenic waysides throughout the state, the Boom Site was developed into a historic and recreational Roadside Parking Area as part of the extensive roadside improvements targeted around Stillwater.</p><br>
<p>The St. Croix Boom Site Roadside Parking Area was developed 1935–1939 using New Deal federal labor relief programs, which had been instituted to combat widespread unemployment during the Great Depression. Landscape architect Arthur R. Nichols designed the plans while construction was largely carried out by young men employed through the National Youth Administration (NYA). They constructed a more permanent historical marker, a picnic area, fire rings, toilets, a stone wall, a guardrail, and a staircase down to the riverbank. They also landscaped the site, planting trees and improving a natural spring.</p><br>
<p>In 1966 the site was declared a National Historic Landmark and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Three years later the former Highway Department, renamed the Minnesota Department of Transportation (or MnDOT), modernized the wayside. At that time the original restrooms, retaining wall, and fence were replaced, a parking area was redesigned, and paved walkways, picnic tables, drinking fountains, and staircase railings were added. Further alterations over the years resulted in the removal of other NYA elements, including the spring enclosure, another guard rail, and several fireplaces. Although many of Minnesota&#39;s New Deal-era waysides are listed on the National Register in the own right—including the nearby Stillwater Overlook—the Boom Site was deemed ineligible because the changes over the years had too greatly compromised its historic integrity.</p><br>
<p>During the onset of the Great Recession in 2008, MnDOT closed 86 waysides around the state under the justification that they no longer served a transportation safety function. Two organizations, the Friends of Washington County and the Friends of the St. Croix Boom Site, led a successful campaign to reopen the site. In 2010 MnDOT transferred management of the property to the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. In 2014 the two Friends organizations helped gather public input on proposed improvements to the site. Possible additions included an information kiosk, picnic shelters, and an enclosure for the portable toilets, all styled after the Boom Site&#39;s logging-era structures.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>In the present day the St. Croix Boom Site is a 26 acre park with five distinct areas. At the northern end is a large parking and picnic area, signposted as the "wayside". A few hundred yards to the south, but separated by a gully, is a smaller parking area with the historical marker and a staircase down to the riverbank.25 mi south is a scenic overlook, which provides the clearest view of the river for motorists. The overlook abuts the private Boomsite Marina, but a short distance downstream is a separate public boat launch.</p><br>
<p>Traces of log boom operation are scant, as most of the structures were removed when the business closed in 1914. The historical marker is located near the site of the mess hall. A shallow cave near the base of the river stairs was used as a natural root cellar. The cook shanty stood on the blufftop directly above, and a dumbwaiter was rigged through a hole cut in the cave roof to deliver food directly from its storage area. The scenic overlook rises above the point where the main log boom was chained across the river. Across the highway from the wayside parking area is a private home that was once the St. Croix Boom Company House and Barn, built circa 1885 as the residence of the on-site superintendent. It was long assumed that no other structures remained from the log boom era, but in 1975 a historical survey crew from the National Park Service rediscovered two buildings hidden by forest. One was identified as a crew office that also functioned as a winter warming hut.</p><br>
<p>Opus 40 is a large environmental sculpture in Saugerties, New York, created by sculptor and quarryman Harvey Fite . It comprises a sprawling series of dry-stone ramps, pedestals and platforms covering 6.5 acre of a bluestone quarry.</p><br>
<p>Note: This includes</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Fite, then a professor of sculpture and theater at Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York, purchased the disused quarry site in 1938, expecting to use it as a source of raw stone for his representational sculpture. Instead, inspired by a season of work restoring Mayan ruins in Honduras, he began creating a space to display the large carved statues he was beginning to create out of native bluestone.</p><br>
<p>Using the rubble that had been left behind as the area was quarried. he built terraces, ramps and walkways to lead to the individual works, doing all the work by hand, and using the traditional hand tools that had been used by the local quarrymen before him. As the rampwork expanded, Fite realized that the 1.5-ton (1.36 tonne) statue, Flame, which had occupied the central pedestal, had become too small for the scale to which his work had grown, and he replaced it with a 9-ton bluestone pillar which he had found in a nearby streambed. This happened in 1964, more than 20 years after he had begun work on his quarry.</p><br>
<p>To raise the central monolith, Fite, an enthusiastic student of the techniques used by sculptors and builders of antiquity, adapted principles used by the ancient Egyptians. He removed Flame and its base, and continued to remove stone until he had formed a crater four feet deep in the spot where the monolith was to stand. He placed the stone so that it rested horizontally, with the tapered end over the hole.</p><br>
<p>Using guy wires attached to a winch on the back of a pickup truck, Fite began the laborious process of raising the stone a few inches at a time, then propping it up with a crib of heavy wooden blocks. He continued this process until gravity took over, and the stone slid down into the hole, coming to rest at a 45 degree angle.</p><br>
<p>Fite constructed a huge A-frame out of 30 ft timbers and raised it over the monolith, then used a chain hoist to lift the stone and suspend it over the hole. Still working stone by stone, he filled in the hole and built up a pedestal, topped by a three-quarter ton capstone.</p><br>
<p>The monolith had previously been made ready by trimming its base, so that its center of gravity was exactly perpendicular to the capstone. This entailed a calculation of extreme precision, one that was worked out by Fite and his neighbor Berthel Wrolsen, a local man who was a self-taught engineering genius and an unofficial consultant to Fite on many structural issues over the years. The calculations were especially difficult in that the top of the monolith is not only wider than the base, but also asymmetrical. Lowered into place, the monolith was to be held there entirely by its own weight and balance. Fite and Wrolsen’s calculations, and Fite’s execution, proved to be correct. The monolith remains standing after nearly half a century’s exposure to all kinds of weather.</p><br>
<p>He had originally planned to carve the new stone in place (Flame had been carved in Fite’s studio), but once the stone was up, he realized that what he had originally conceived as a setting for sculpture had become a sculpture in its own right, and a new kind of sculpture, in which carved representational work was out of place. So he removed the other carved pieces, relocating them on the grounds nearby, and continued to work on this new sculptural concept for the rest of his life.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1970s, after he had retired from 30 years as a professor at Bard College, Fite built the Quarryman’s Museum on the grounds—a collection of folk tools and artifacts of the quarrying era.</p><br>
<p>It was around this same time that he finally succumbed to the pressure to give his masterwork a name. At first a joke -- “Classical composers don’t have to name things,” he would say, “they can just number them, Opus One, Opus Two, and so on”—he eventually arrived at what was certainly an apropos name. Opus is the Latin word for work, and 40 refers to the number of years he expected he would need to complete the work.</p><br>
<p>Fite died in 1976, in the 37th year of his creation. He died working on it, in a fall. He left some unfinished areas—but, as his stepson, the writer Jonathan Richards, has observed, “Opus 40 is as complete as it ever would have been. It was the product of Fite’s ceaseless vision, and could only have been stopped by his death.”</p><br>
<p>The following year, his widow, Barbara Fite, who had been a close aesthetic collaborator with him throughout his labors, created a nonprofit group to administer Opus 40, and opened it to the public. Barbara Fite died in 1986, and her family continues to administer the organization. Opus 40 remains a popular tourist attraction, as well as a wedding and concert venue. In 2001 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Brendan Gill, in the March, 1989 edition of Architectural Digest, called Opus 40 "one of the largest and most beguiling works of art on the entire continent," and he has also called it “the greatest earthwork sculpture I have ever seen.” Though Fite was not associated with the Land Art or Earthworks sculptural movement of the 1970s, he came to be known as a pioneer of that movement, and was recognized in 1977 by the Hirshhorn Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, in a show entitled “Probing the Earth: Contemporary Land Projects,” as a forefather of the earthworks movement.</p><br>
<h2>Trivia</h2><br>
<p>A Sonny Rollins concert at Opus 40 on August 16, 1986 was filmed for Robert Mugge&#39;s documentary Saxophone Colossus.</p><br>
<p>The band Mercury Rev recorded "Opus 40", a song about the site, on their 1998 album Deserter&#39;s Songs.</p><br>
<p>The music video for Amanda Palmers interpretation of Pink Floyds "Mother" was filmed at Opus 40 in 2017.</p><br>
<p>Oakwood Cemetery, originally called City Cemetery, is the oldest city-owned cemetery in Austin, Texas. Situated on a hill just east of I-35 that overlooks downtown Austin, just north of the Swedish Hill Historic District and south of Disch-Falk Field, the once-isolated site is now in the center of the city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The cemetery dates from the mid-1850s. It may have begun even earlier, as legend states that its first tenants were victims of a Comanche attack whose bodies were laid to rest on the same hill.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery was renamed Oakwood in 1907 per city ordinance. It spreads over 40 acre, including an annex across Comal Street to the east, and includes sections historically dedicated to the citys black, Latino, and Jewish populations. Paupers were historically buried in unmarked graves on the cemeterys south side. Graves without permanent markers were subject to reburial after a given period.</p><br>
<p>In 1914 the Oakwood Cemetery Mortuary Chapel was built on a design by Texas architect Charles Henry Page as a site for memorial services. The chapel was later renovated and remodeled in 1944 under the direction of local architect J. Roy White.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery became a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1972 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1985; its annex was added on October 30, 2003. The view of the Texas State Capitol from Comal Street in the center of the cemetery became one of the Capitol View Corridors protected under state and local law from obstruction by tall buildings in 1983. Despite its protected status, the cemetery has been subject to crime, vandalism, and decay for decades.</p><br>
<h2>Notable burials</h2><br>
<p>Wilmer Allison (1904&ndash;1977) - Tennis Player</p><br>
<p>John Barclay Armstrong (1850&ndash;1913) - Texas Ranger, USA Marshall, and rancher. Captured the notorious killer John Wesley Hardin and is enshrined in the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame in Waco.</p><br>
<p>Thomas N. Barnes (1930 – 2003) Fourth Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force</p><br>
<p>Richard Bache, Jr. who represented Galveston in the Senate of the Second Texas Legislature in 1847 and assisted in drawing up the Texas Constitution of 1845. He was also the grandson of Benjamin Franklin, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America, and Deborah Read.</p><br>
<p>Albert S. Burleson (1863&ndash;1937) - United States Postmaster General (1913&ndash;1921)</p><br>
<p>Oscar Branch Colquitt (1861&ndash;1940) - Governor of Texas (1911&ndash;1915)</p><br>
<p>Jacob Carl DeGress (1842&ndash;1894) - First State Superintendent of Schools (1871) and Mayor of Austin (1877&ndash;1880)</p><br>
<p>Susanna Dickinson (1814&ndash;1883) - Alamo survivor</p><br>
<p>John Henry Faulk (1913&ndash;1990) - Radio Personality</p><br>
<p>Rebecca Jane G. Fisher (1831–1926), the only woman elected to the Texas Veterans Association and its last surviving member, the first woman to have her portrait hung in the Senate Chamber at the Texas Capitol.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Green (1814&ndash;1864) - American Civil War General</p><br>
<p>Andrew J. Hamilton (1815&ndash;1875) - Governor of Texas (1865&ndash;1866)</p><br>
<p>Morgan C. Hamilton (1809&ndash;1893) - USA Senator (1870&ndash;1877)</p><br>
<p>Peter Heinrich Oberwetter (1830&ndash;1915) - Botanist, Landscape artist for the Texas State Capital</p><br>
<p>John Hancock (1824&ndash;1893) - Member of the United States House of Representatives (1871&ndash;1885)</p><br>
<p>Ima Hogg (1882&ndash;1975) - Philanthropist</p><br>
<p>James S. Hogg (1851&ndash;1906) - Governor of Texas (1891&ndash;1895)</p><br>
<p>George W. Littlefield (1842&ndash;1920) - Cattleman, Banker, University of Texas Regent</p><br>
<p>Seth W. Mabry (1831&ndash;1914) - Cattleman</p><br>
<p>Henry Green Madison (1843&ndash;1912) - First African-American City Councilman of Austin, Texas</p><br>
<p>Elisha M. Pease (1812&ndash;1883) - Governor of Texas (1853&mdash;1857, 1867&ndash;1869)</p><br>
<p>Porter, Infant of W.S Porter; (1888) - Son of writer, O. Henry</p><br>
<p>John Rabb (1798&ndash;1861) - One of the Original 297 Texas Settlers with the Stephen F. Austin Colony John Rabb (1798 - 1861)</p><br>
<p>Find a Grave https://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=66837615</p><br>
<p>Oran M. Roberts (1815&ndash;1898) - Governor of Texas (1879&ndash;1883)</p><br>
<p>Ben Thompson (1842&ndash;1884) - City Marshal of Austin, Texas</p><br>
<p>William M. Walton (1832&ndash;1915) - Attorney General of Texas (1866&ndash;1867)</p><br>
<p>Charles S. West (1829&ndash;1885) - Texas Supreme Court justice and Secretary of State of Texas</p><br>
<p>Dr. Annie Webb Blanton (1870&ndash;1945) - First woman elected to statewide office in Texas. Served as State Superintendent for Public Instruction from 1919-1922.</p><br>
<p>Beecher Island is a sandbar located along the lower course of the Arikaree River, a tributary of the North Fork of the Republican River near Wray in Yuma County, Colorado. The site is notable for having been the scene of an 1868 armed conflict between elements of the United States Army and several of the Plains Indian tribes. The island was named for Lt. Fredrick Henry Beecher of the 3rd Infantry , one of the heroes of the engagement who was killed during what became known as the Battle of Beecher Island. The "island" and the courses of the river have been modified by several floods since 1868.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Beecher Island was fought along the Arickaree Fork of the Republican</p><br>
<p>River with concentrated fighting on a small island. A few willow trees stood</p><br>
<p>on the island; however, the banks on either side of the river were believed to have</p><br>
<p>had minimal tree growth. Bluffs rise gently from the course of the river. The</p><br>
<p>physical appearance of the actual battleground site was changed by a flood in 1935</p><br>
<p>which altered the river channel. A monument, erected in 1905, was swept from the island</p><br>
<p>and virtually all traces of the island were destroyed. The major pieces of the</p><br>
<p>monument were retrieved and have been erected on the north side of the river, overlooking</p><br>
<p>picnic and camping grounds.</p><br>
<h2>Beecher Island Battleground Memorial Association</h2><br>
<p>The Association purchased 240 acres where the battle happened. This is a semi-arid region with native grasses, sagebrush, scrub plants, and trees along the river. The Association maintains a monument and the 1940 period auditorium, Sunday School building, kitchen hall, a one-room school house, modern showers and rest rooms, and a storage shed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Westward immigration in the 1860s, broke the treaties between the Great Plains tribes and the United States</p><br>
<p>The Cheyenne, Arapahoe, and Sioux Indians saw their hunting grounds being overrun by trails and homesteads. Alarmed, the began sporadic raids against settlers 1864-1868.</p><br>
<p>Major George "Sandy" Forsyth, was commissioned to take fifty frontiersmen and located the Indians doing the raiding. On the afternoon of September 16, 1868, an Indian trail was found and the troop followed it towards an encampment. Sioux scouts alerted their warriors nearby threat. The Indians were located on the Arikaree Fork of the Republican River. Roman Nose, Indian war leader was among those in the camp.</p><br>
<p>The Forsyth setup camp on the south side of the Arickaree Fork. Toward dawn, Indian scouts happened onto the camp. Fighting began and reinforcements were called from the Indian camps.</p><br>
<p>Forsyth organized a defense on the low-lying island in the Arickaree. Protected by hastily dug rifle pits the Forsyth and his men held out for nine days. Six scouts were killed and fifteen, including Forsyth, were injured. Scouts were sent out at night to bring help form Fort Wallace.</p><br>
<p>Because his invulnerability had been damaged earlier, Roman Nose held back from the battle as he performed the rituals to restore his power. While watching the battle from a bluff he was hit by rifle fire and died from his wounds. Indian losses are unknown and the numbers disputed.</p><br>
<p>The island was named in honor of Lieutenant Fred Beecher, who was killed during the engagement.</p><br>
<h2>Historic designations</h2><br>
<p>National Register of Historic Places &mdash; "Beecher Island Battleground Memorial" site</p><br>
<p>The Old Market House, currently being operated as the Galena Welcome Center, is a brick building built in the Greek Revival style in 1845 in Galena, Illinois. It is owned and operated by the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency as an Illinois State Historic Site.</p><br>
<h2>City hall and public market</h2><br>
<p>The Old Market House was built by the city of Galena to serve as a city hall and enclosed public farmer&#39;s market. A rapid increase in population in the Galena area in the 1830s and 1840s, largely a result of the discovery of galena, a kind of lead ore found in the region, had led to a sharp increase in demand for local foodstuffs.</p><br>
<p>The Old Market Houses business plan called for the US$50 per year rents from the twelve enclosed farmers market stalls to help maintain the building. The $2,500 used for initial construction was obtained through the sale of $5 per share stocks, which was enabled by an 1845 act of the Galena City Council. Sellers who could not rent a stall were allocated space in the market square just outside the building.</p><br>
<h2>Cars and grocery stores</h2><br>
<p>The Old Market House continued to serve the people of Galena until about 1910. As an increasing percentage of local citizens bought motor vehicles, households began to "shop around" for foodstuffs. Local grocery stores, which paid property taxes to the city of Galena, were not interested in helping to maintain their competitors. In about 1910 the stalls of the Old Market House went out of business.</p><br>
<p>The city of Galena moved its offices elsewhere in 1938, making the old building redundant. It was given to the state of Illinois in 1947.</p><br>
<h2>A frontier community</h2><br>
<p>The Old Market House was extensively rebuilt and restored in 1954 to repair growing deterioration. It has been refitted by the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency to serve as a visitor services information desk and museum of local social history.</p><br>
<p>Souroti , a rural village in the Thessaloniki regional unit of Greece is located 25 km outside of the city of Thessaloniki. In Greece the village is particularly known for the mineral water bottled there. Administratively it belongs to the municipality of Thermi. St. John the Theologian Convent is situated there, associated with the name of a famous Orthodox religious author and ascetic of the 20th century, St. Paisios of Mount Athos.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Souroti is an immigrants village, one of the many that were established in Greek Macedonia after the Balkan wars and the population exchange between Greece and Turkey. Shortly before 1912 the area was called "Surukli" (from the Turkish suru which means heard) and was owned by five Turkish land owners (Τσιφλικάδες) who sold their land to Jews from Thessaloniki. The first Greeks that settled in the area were a vlach family from Vlasti of the Kozani regional unit, the Christos Lolas family. Although they were originally shepherds, the family sold their sheep to buy the land from the Jews. In 1914 forty families of arvanites came from Mandritsa (Μανδρίτσα) in North Thrace following a Bulgarian invasion in their home village. Most of them were bilingual in Greek and Arvanitika. Their primary occupation was sericulture and they moved to Souroti to take advantage of the local mulberries. At the same time they maintained trade bonds with Jewish silk producers in Thrace. In 1922, after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey about 48 families arrived from Asia Minor originating from Izmir (Σμύρνη), Aydin (Αϊδίνιο), Cius (Κίος), Mudanya (Μουδανιά) and also from Eastern Thrace. Those were educated and they carried their own traditions. In Souroti they worked in sericulture, olive oil production and vine dressing. Between 1928 and 1930 more vlach shepherds came from Vlasti along with 4-5 families of Sarakatsanoi (Σαρακατσάνοι). Land was distributed to the immigrants by the Greek state first in 1914 and later in 1932.</p><br>
<h3>Modern Establishment</h3><br>
<p>The community of Souroti was officially established and recognized by the Greek state on Sep. 20th, 1947. Since then the village, whose main productive activities were agriculture and bottling of mineral water, has undergone steady development. In 1997 during a major reorganization of local self-government initiated by the Greek government called "Kapodistrias plan", Souroti merged with the municipality of Vasilika along with Ag. Paraskeyi, Ag. Antonio, Libadi, Monopigado and Peristera. In 2011 with the Kallikratis plan, Vasilika merged with the municipality of Thermi. Nowadays people from the nearby Thessaloniki are moving to the area around the village which is expected to turn into a suburb of Thessaloniki.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery of the mineral water spring</h2><br>
<p>While still part of the Ottoman Empire, the area around todays bottling factory was a swamp, and the spring of mineral water unknown. During the 1915 military campaigns of the First World War, the French troops that camped at the then called Surukli mapped the spring and built a rudimentary bottling facility. In 1917 Serbian troops camped there and they too built a new bottling facility. They called the water "Sour Water" (Serbian Latin: Kisela Voda, Ξινό νερό). The Lolas family appropriated and refurbished the facility in 1918. In 1925 George Chonaios took over the Lolas enterprise. Chonaios had the facility work as a private enterprise, however he allotted 5% of the profit to the local community. In 1998 the company went public. Since then it exhibited rapid development and became one of the most popular mineral water brands in Greece.</p><br>
<h3>Quality of the mineral water</h3><br>
<p>Souroti water has been recognized as a sub-acidic sparkling mineral water rich in calcium and magnesium in accordance with Greek Legislation (Government Gazette 600/1-8-1991, Decision No. 4). It is also included in the European Union&#39;s. The water, at least in the beginning of the 20th century, was naturally sparkling. Although it still preserves its original mineral composition, nowadays carbon dioxide is added during bottling.</p><br>
<p>The water is estimated to come from a container approximately 150 m underground. It owes its excellent quality to the rock formations at Mount Anthemounta which consist of semi-metamorphic, metamorphic and igneous rocks. Water flowing in the substrate is slow-moving and as it passes through the various rocks it is filtered and enriched with beneficial elements giving it its unique mineral composition and distinctive taste. Water in the spring is cold at a steady temperature of around 16 °C. Its special features are a high magnesium content with the ideal calcium to magnesium ratio and a low sodium and nitrate content. It also contains potassium and fluorine as well as valuable trace elements such as iron, copper, manganese, lithium, selenium, chromium and zinc. It has exceptional taste and is very pleasant to drink, assists in the functioning of the digestive and urinary systems and it has several other health benefits. One liter of Souroti water meets 1/4 of the body&#39;s daily needs in calcium and magnesium. All this makes it different from soda water, which is ordinary potable water to which sodium bicarbonate has been added so that it acquires approximately the same properties as natural mineral water.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Division of the Pennsylvania Canal, more commonly called the Delaware Canal, runs for 60 mi parallel to the right bank of the Delaware River from the entry locks near the mouth of the Lehigh River and terminal end of the Lehigh Canal at Easton south to Bristol. At Easton, which today is the home of The National Canal Museum, the Delaware Canal also connected with the Morris Canal built to carry anthracite coal to energy starved New Jersey industries. Later, with a crossing-lock constructed at New Hope, the New Hope outlet lock  connected by Cable Ferry to a feeder navigation/canal at Bulls Island along the opposite shore from Lumberville, which ran over 22 mi south along the left bank through Trenton to Bordentown, the west end of the Delaware and Raritan Canal  to New York City via New Brunswick. as part of the solution to the United States first energy crisis. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania built the Delaware canal to feed anthracite stone coal to energy-hungry Philadelphia as part of its transportation infrastructure building plan known as the Main Line of Public Works—a legislative initiative creating a collection of self-reinforcing internal improvements to commercial transportation capabilities.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Canal, like the Lehigh Canal, was primarily meant to carry the "fuel of choice" of the day, anthracite coal, and other bulk goods such as gravel and limestone, cement, and lumber—from northeastern Pennsylvania to Philadelphia. In reverse flow, the two canals carried manufactured goods, iron products and (a few decades later) steel products to the northeastern cities. The Delaware and Lehigh Canals also connected from Easton by ferry services across the Delaware River to New Jersey and the Delaware and Raritan Canal, connecting industrial loads to New York City.</p><br>
<p>First opened in 1832, the Delaware Canal still has most of its original locks, aqueducts, and overflows. Although the two canals reached their peak shipping in 1855, after which coal transport down the Lehigh corridor was taken up increasingly by railroads, the canals stayed in operation until the Great Depression in the early 1930s. According to the National Park Service, it was the "longest-lived canal in the country".</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Pennsylvania Canal system was spurred by the early success of the Erie Canal in New York State, which had opened in 1825. Construction on the Delaware Canal started in 1829, accomplished entirely with hand tools using primarily imported labor from Ireland.</p><br>
<p>The canal runs down a channel dug parallel to the Delaware River from Easton to Bristol, Pennsylvania; its line of travel is generally within sight of the river. Originally 60 mi in length, the canal is approximately 60 ft wide with a depth of about 3 ft.</p><br>
<p>After the original construction failed in 1830, it had to be re-engineered by Josiah White of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, who had offered to engineer and build the Delaware Canal for a break in fees in 1824. The state sold the canal to the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company in 1858.</p><br>
<p>The Delaware Canal took over the easy part of the journey for the coal barges transiting down the rapids strewn path of the Lehigh Valley from Mauch Chunk and the heights of Nesquehoning, Pennsylvania and the huge coal fields that connected beyond them.</p><br>
<p>Millions of tons of coal traveled from Wilkes-Barre down the Lehigh Valley transportation infrastructure, then finished the journey on the Delaware Canal&#39;s barges.</p><br>
<p>But competition from the railroad led to a decline in barge traffic. By the 1920s, anthracite coal was waning as a source of fuel. The last commercial through traffic traveled the canal in October 1931 and the bankrupt Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company sold the canal back to the state for a nominal fee.</p><br>
<p>In 1933, a private group called The Delaware Valley Protective Association (DVPA) was founded to protect the canal as a historic asset. The DVPA persuaded the state to resume maintenance of the canal in 1940, when its towpath became Theodore Roosevelt State Park. The berms were restored and the canal was refilled with water.</p><br>
<p>Through the 1940s and 1950s, the canal was left mostly untouched. In the early 1960s, however, Pennsylvania officials explored plans to pave over the canal and create a road for cars. Local residents fought for the canals protection. In 1964, Bucks County historian and DVPA member Willis M. Rivinus wrote the first Guide to the Delaware Canal to call attention to the canals value.</p><br>
<p>Through the 1960s and 1970s, the DVPA and other influential citizens sought to secure federal landmark status to protect the Canal. In 1974, the Canal was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. In 1976, it was designated a National Historic Landmark, helping to guarantee its preservation. The towpath itself was named an official National Recreation Trail.</p><br>
<p>In 1988, the USA government created the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor, covering a 165-mile north-south swath of eastern Pennsylvania that includes the Delaware Canal. In 1989, Theodore Roosevelt State Park was renamed Delaware Canal State Park.</p><br>
<p>However, public funding for the canal often has been inadequate and, as in other parts of the country, private non-profit groups have been created to fill the void. In 1983, Bucks County resident Betty Orlemann organized the Friends of the Delaware Canal (FODC), now the canal&#39;s largest fund-raising and volunteer group. (The DVPA no longer exists). Under long-time executive director Susan Taylor, the FODC also functions as a watchdog group, ensuring goals are to met to make the towpath trail walkable over its entire length and to eventually get the canal fully watered from Easton to Bristol.</p><br>
<p>Portions of the Delaware Canal towpath were washed away or damaged during successive floods in 2004, 2005 and 2006. A number of sections of the towpath were closed and impassable, including a long stretch north of Washington Crossing and sections south of Riegelsville. In February 2008, a section of the towpath collapsed and 23 mi of the canal lost water.</p><br>
<p>Through funds from the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (PA DCNR) currently is refurbishing the washed out sections of the canal. As of October 2009, according to Delaware Canal State Park manager Rick Dalton, 75 percent of the towpath had been restored and was expected to be fully walkable by summer 2010.</p><br>
<h2>Engineering</h2><br>
<p>At New Hope, engineers connected an undershot water wheel to another wheel with buckets, which lifted water from the Delaware River up into the canal using only the force of the river current.</p><br>
<p>A few hundred yards above, there was an outlet lock to the Delaware River, and on the other side of the river a lock to the Delaware and Raritan canal. To enable boats to cross the river, engineers devised a system whereby two cables of unequal length attached to wheels on a spanning cable across the river would hold a boat at a diagonal to the current, thereby acting as a sail, pushing the boat across.</p><br>
<h2>Mule Barge Tourist Ride</h2><br>
<p>Mule-drawn barges, operated by private concessionaires, provided rides for chartered private parties running from a landing at Lock #11 at New Hope north to a point about 1.5 mi above Centre Bridge, for a total one-way ride length of 4.5 mi.</p><br>
<p>Tourist rides were also offered, however, they stopped in the vicinity of the Rabbit Run bridge, which carries PA 32 over the canal, about 1 mi north of Lock #11. These rides were offered from approximately 1954 to 2006. Each boat could transport between 55 and 80 passengers and were pulled by two mules. Four boats, the Americana (painted red, white & blue), the Independence, the Liberty, and the Spirit of New Hope were used from the inauguration of the tourist ride until the 1997 season, when they were replaced by two new boats, the Molly Pitcher and the Myfanwy Jenkins (pronounced "Mivanway").</p><br>
<p>Since 1997, operation of the barges have been under regulations by the USA Coast Guard (for example, steersmen are required to obtain a Master Mariner&#39;s license) and, if reopened, would face regulations imposed in 2009 on its sister operation on the Lehigh Canal in Easton, PA by the USA Department of Homeland Security for crew members in "sensitive shipboard and dockside locations".</p><br>
<p>Oak Creek Canyon is a river gorge located in northern Arizona between the cities of Flagstaff and Sedona. The canyon is often described as a smaller cousin of the Grand Canyon because of its scenic beauty. State Route 89A enters the canyon on its north end via a series of hairpin turns before traversing the bottom of the canyon for about 13 mi until the highway enters the town of Sedona. The Oak Creek Canyon &ndash; Sedona area is second only to Grand Canyon as the most popular tourist destination in Arizona.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Oak Creek Canyon is about 12 mi long, ranging in width from 0.8 to 2.5 mi. The depth of the canyon ranges from 800 to 2000 ft. However, due to the faulting that played a major role in its formation, the west rim of the canyon is 700 ft higher than the east rim. The average elevation of the west rim is 7,200 ft while the east rim elevation is 6,500 ft.</p><br>
<h3>Oak Creek</h3><br>
<p>Oak Creek, a tributary of the Verde River, flows along the bottom of the canyon, and is one of the few perennial streams in the high desert region of northern Arizona. Oak Creek is largely responsible for carving the modern Oak Creek Canyon, although movement along the Oak Creek Fault, a 30 mi long north&ndash;south normal fault line, is thought to have played a role as well.</p><br>
<p>Oak Creek enters more open country below Sedona. It meanders past the communities of Page Springs and Cornville, and reaches its confluence with the Verde River about 6 miles (10 km) southeast of Cottonwood.</p><br>
<p>In June 2006, the southern portion of the canyon, near Slide Rock State Park, was affected by a 4,300 acre wildfire known as the "Brins Fire".</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Geologic evidence suggests the formation of an ancestral Oak Creek Canyon along the Oak Creek Fault about eight to ten million years ago. The ancestral Oak Creek Canyon was then filled in by gravel deposits and a series of lava flows between six and eight mya during the Miocene Epoch. About this time, the Oak Creek Fault became active again and the modern Oak Creek Canyon began to develop along the fault zone as a result of the erosional action of Oak Creek. The normal, down-to-the-east motion of the Oak Creek Fault during the most recent faulting period resulted in the west rim of the canyon being about 700 feet (210 meters) higher than the east rim.</p><br>
<p>The spectacularly eroded walls of the canyon are formed mostly of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks. Exposures of the Kaibab Limestone, (the geologic formation found at the top of the Grand Canyon), and the Toroweap Formation are found only at the northern end of the canyon. The more predominant rock units exposed in the cliffs of southern Oak Creek Canyon are the buff to white colored, frequently cross-bedded Permian Coconino Sandstone and the red sandstones of the Permian Schnebly Hill Formation. Unlike all the other formations exposed in Oak Creek Canyon, the Schnebly Hill Formation is not present at the Grand Canyon. The youngest rocks exposed in the canyon are a series of basalt lava flows that form the east rim, the youngest of which is an estimated 6 million years old.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Oak Creek Canyon is located within the Coconino National Forest. Portions of the canyon have been designated federal wilderness areas as part of the Red Rock-Secret Mountain Wilderness. The United States Forest Service operates several campgrounds, picnic areas, and recreation areas within the canyon. Slide Rock State Park, home to a natural water slide along Oak Creek, is also located within Oak Creek Canyon. Other recreational activities include swimming and fishing in Oak Creek. There are 49 fishable miles along the creek where rainbow trout, brown trout, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, catfish (channel) and catfish (flathead) can be found. Hiking the many trails leading into side canyons or up to the rim of the canyon is a popular activity for the area. The trail leading the first 3 miles (4.8 km) up the West Fork of Oak Creek, a 14-mile (22.4 km) long narrow side canyon, is the most popular trail in the Coconino National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>2014 slide fire</h2><br>
<p>On May 20, 2014, at around 4 PM, a wildfire was reported just north of Slide Rock State Park. The fire was 100% contained on June 4, 2014, with 21,227 acres burned. Total personnel included over 1,230 firefighters, 50 crews, 29 engines, and 9 helicopters.</p><br>
<p>Wiawaka is a holiday house for women. It has lake front property on Lake George, New York. It is one of the few remaining fully operational vacation/retreat centers which arose out of the women&#39;s rights movement in the early part of the twentieth century. Founded in 1903 by Mary Wiltsie Fuller, Wiawaka provided "affordable vacations" for mainly immigrant female textile workers from Troy and Cohoes, New York, who lacked the economic means to find respite anywhere else.</p><br>
<p>Today, women of all socio-economic backgrounds and from all over North America are able to enjoy the peaceful atmosphere of Wiawaka since it operates as a nonprofit corporation in order to continue the tradition of "affordable vacations" for all women.</p><br>
<h2>Early history of the property</h2><br>
<p>The earliest reference to the property of Wiawaka is in the tax records of the town of Caldwell (now Lake George) where it is referred to as the old "garrison ground". This suggests that military activity took place on the site which also is home to sunken bateaux, but no archeological survey has been done at Wiawaka to answer these questions.</p><br>
<p>The first private owner of the lake front property ran the United States Hotel on the site until F. G. Crosby bought the land and building in 1848. Financial difficulties caused him to lease the structure to the Lake George Young Ladies Institute in 1855 but it was shut down after only one year of operation.</p><br>
<p>Next, he enlarged the hotel, changing the name to Crosbyside, and housed several customers from cities who retreated to Lake George for a vacation in the country. With a new wave of tourism, Mr. Crosby was very successful and he soon built several Victorian cottages as lodging for his best and most loyal customers. These are Mayflower Cottage, c. 1873 and Rose Cottage, c. 1873. He also built a house for himself and his family soon after in 1876 (it was later named Fuller House). The Second Empire style residence is very little altered in its appearance today. In 1890s, Crosbyside was sold to a new owner and declined in the shadow of resorts like the bigger and more luxurious Fort William Henry Hotel.</p><br>
<h2>"The Great Spirit of Woman" over the years</h2><br>
<p>In 1902, Katrina Trask and her husband Spencer Trask acquired the property. Spencer and Katrina Trask built Wakonda Lodge, formerly called "Amitola", in 1905 as their first experiment in a building an artists colony before receiving artists at Yaddo. The famous artist Georgia OKeeffe later stayed in this lodge. Katrina gradually handed over her land to her friend Mary Wiltsie Fuller who had a vision of providing retreats from the polluted city to women factory workers from Troy (known then as The Collar City). Using the original structures built by Mr. Crosby, Mary Fuller opened her retreat center in 1903 and named it Wiawaka Holiday House. Wiawaka is derived from the Abenaki word meaning "The Great Spirit of Woman". Mary proved the existence of the collective "Great Spirit" as she formed a board of women to run and look out for the interests of Wiawaka. Eventually, Wiawaka added workshops covering different skills to add an additional dimension to the guests&#39; vacations.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>Mary Fuller died in the 1940s, but her vision of providing vacations to hard working women continues today, although women of all socio-economic backgrounds are welcome. Wiawaka also takes pride in continuing to offer a diverse range of workshops like those held since its founding. These components combined with its historic foundation lay the cornerstones for its mission statement which follows:</p><br>
<p>"Wiawaka is a non-sectarian retreat and educational center dedicated to enriching the lives of women, and helping disadvantaged women, including but not limited to women with disabilities, economically disadvantaged women, victims of domestic abuse, the elderly, and other women in transition, to develop skills and personal resources necessary to meet the challenges they face in life. Wiawaka is steward of the preservation, maintenance and operation of its historic property."</p><br>
<p>In order to give all women the opportunity to go to Wiawaka, room and board is offered on a sliding scale according to income. All three meals are served on site in the same communal dining room that guests have used since 1903. Today, a very diverse range of workshops are offered, all of which have been opened up to the public (the calendar is easily accessible on their website). Some recent workshop topics have included creative writing, poetry readings with Yaddo poet Joan Murray, holistic healing, yoga, quilting, historical lectures, jewelry making, and tours of the historic property. Not only have workshops been opened up to the public, but Wiawaka has also started to offer day use passes as well for those who are not overnight guests yet would like to take advantage of the serene property. Many of Wiawaka&#39;s guests return year after year to meet friends, attend workshops, volunteer, live the history, and take in the magical peace tranquility, and spirit that is Wiawaka.</p><br>
<h2>Importance</h2><br>
<p>Wiawaka is listed on the National Register of Historic Places under nine categories of significance and is listed by the National Park Service as a "Place Where Women Made History". Its place on the National Register is significant as the National Park Service holds high standards regarding the historic value of sites to which it grants this status. Its Victorian cottages, Adirondack lodge, and House of Trix (built directly over the water) are points of historic architectural interest and are listed on the register. A marker on the shore points out the location of the Wiawaka Bateaux which are also on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Dalešice Hydro Power Plant on the Jihlava River is a large power plant in the Czech Republic that has four Francis turbines with a nominal capacity of 120 MW each and a total capacity of 480 MW. The old turbines before the 1999–2007 reconstruction had a capacity of 112.5 MW each. The plant includes the lower Dalešice-Mohelno Dam.</p><br>
<h2>Dalešice Dam</h2><br>
<p>Dalešice Dam lies in the Czech Republic. It was built between 1970 and 1978 together with the Mohelno Dam as a water source for the nearby Dukovany Nuclear Power Station. As it has the fastest-starting turbines of all dams in Czech republic (less than 1 minute to full power) it also acts as emergency source in case some of the reactors in Dukovany shut down (for that reason it was also initially equipped with total capacity of 450 MW to back-up one of the four 440MWe VVER440 reactors). Thanks to the turbine capability to act as pumps it also plays significant balacing role for distributing network when it pumps water back to the higher reservoir during the night, and uses it again to produce electricity during the daily consumption peaks. The gravity dam is 100 m high (the highest in the Czech Republic, second-highest rockfill dam in Europe), so the reservoir is also the deepest in the Czech Republic 85.5 m. The reservoir has a capacity of 127.3 e6m3.</p><br>
<h2>Mohelno Dam</h2><br>
<p>The Mohelno Dam is through-flow dam, acting as the lower reservoir of the Dalešice-Mohelno pump-dam complex. The gravity concrete dam is 185 m long, 7.75/32 m wide and 38.65 m tall. It creates 7-km-long lake and has total capacity of 17.1 e6m3. It includes single Kaplan turbine (1.2 MW) and single Francis turbine (0.6 MW). In case of total blackout, the Mohelno turbines can jumpstart the Dalešice Francis turbines and together start the Dukovany NPP. Thanks to this the whole Dalešice-Dukovany complex is certified for fully autonomous operation independent of the external distribution network.</p><br>
<p>Panmure Island is a small 800 acre island of Canadian red sandstone island, with sand beaches, located off the east coast of Prince Edward Island in the Lot 61 township in Kings County.</p><br>
<p>The island is located about 1 km from the nearest point on Prince Edward Island.</p><br>
<p>The first visitors to Panmure Island were the Micmac First Nations Indians. The Micmac came to the island in the summer months to dig clams, mussels and quahaugs. The first full-time inhabitants of the island were settlers from Scotland, the first of which is believed to have been Andrew MacDonald and his family in 1805. The Panmure Island Cemetery was established in 1813.</p><br>
<p>Panmure Island was connected to Prince Edward Island by sand bars at low tide, but since the 1960s, an artificial causeway has carried a road to the island. The causeway also created an extensive barrier beach and sand dune formation, which is now protected by Panmure Island Provincial Park; this park is not actually located on the island but along the causeway. The causeway has faced increased wave erosion in recent years and the provincial government has spent a significant amount to preserve the connection despite rising sea levels and increased storms.</p><br>
<p>The island contains the oldest wooden lighthouse on Prince Edward Island, near the northern end of the causeway. Built in 1853, the historic 18 m lighthouse structure has gabled windows and four stories with a warning beacon atop. It sits on the northeast shore alerting ships of the dangerous shoals that have been responsible for several shipwrecks in the region. Tours of the lighthouse are available in the summer months.</p><br>
<p>A school was built on the island in 1897 for $150, and had a total of seven pupils the first year.</p><br>
<p>The island is home to the community of Panmure Island, which derives its name from the island.</p><br>
<p>Duke Homestead State Historic Site is a state historic site and National Historic Landmark in Durham, North Carolina. The site belongs to the North Carolina Department of Natural and Cultural resources and commemorates the place where Washington Duke founded the nation&#39;s largest early-20th-century tobacco firm, the American Tobacco Company.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Duke Homestead was built about 1852 by Washington Duke, on a farm that was about 300 acre in size when the American Civil War broke out. During the war, the property was, like many others, looted by Union Army. With little left beyond a small supply of tobacco, the family shifted from tobacco farming to tobacco processing, introducing cigarettes in 1881 to compete with loose-leaf tobacco. This property is where the Dukes did their early tobacco processing, eventually moving into downtown Durham in 1874. The Duke business was incorporated as the American Tobacco Company in 1890, and was the largest tobacco company in the world until an antitrust suit broke it up in 1911. In 1931, the farm was purchased by Duke University, and in 1966, the Duke Homestead was designated a National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service. It became a North Carolina State Historic Site in 1974, administered by the North Carolina State Division of Archives and History.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The property now consists of more than 40 acre of the original Duke lands, on which stand the original Duke Homestead and several barn-like "factory" structures in which the Dukes cured, processed, and packed their tobacco. The very first building in which they worked, a log barn, was destroyed by fire, and was reconstructed in 1931.</p><br>
<h2>Museum</h2><br>
<p>Today, the site is a museum where tourists can view the restored 1852 Duke Homestead with four furnished rooms, tobacco barns and various artifacts. The visitor center features the Tobacco Museum, with exhibits about tobacco farming, processing and the history of tobacco. Various readings and presentations are available in the Visitor Center.</p><br>
<p>Paltus or Paltos  is a ruined city. It was also a bishopric, a suffragan of Seleucia Pieria in the Roman province of Syria Prima, that, no longer being a residential see, is included in the Catholic Church&#39;s list of titular sees.</p><br>
<p>The ruins of Paltus may be seen at Belde (Arab al-Mulk) at the south of Nahr al-Sin or Nahr al-Melek, the ancient Badan.</p><br>
<p>The town was founded by a colony from Arvad or Aradus (Arrianus, Anab. II, xiii, 17). It is located in Syria by Pliny the Elder (Hist. Natur., V, xviii) and Ptolemy (V, xiv, 2); Strabo (XV, iii, 2; XVI, ii, 12) places it near the river Badan. When the province of Theodorias was established by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I, Paltus became a part of it (Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani, ed. Heinrich Gelzer, 45).</p><br>
<p>From the sixth century according to the Notitia episcopatuum of Anastasius it was an autocephalous archdiocese and depended on the patriarch of Antioch. In the tenth century it still existed and its precise limits are known.</p><br>
<p>Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 799) mentions five of its bishops:</p><br>
<p>Cymatius, friend of St. Athanasius, and Patricius, his successor</p><br>
<p>Severus (381)</p><br>
<p>Sabbas at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD</p><br>
<p>John, exiled by the Monophysites and reinstated by Emperor Justin I in 518.</p><br>
<p>Totten Glacier is a large glacier draining a major portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, through the Budd Coast of Wilkes Land in the Australian Antarctic Territory. The catchment drained by the glacier is estimated at 538,000 km, extending approximately 1100 km into the interior and 750 km across. Totten drains northeastward from the continental ice but turns northwestward at the coast where it terminates in a prominent tongue close east of Cape Waldron. It was first delineated from aerial photographs taken by USN Operation Highjump , and named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names  for George M. Totten, midshipman on the USS Vincennes of the United States Exploring Expedition , who assisted Lt. Charles Wilkes with correction of the survey data obtained by the expedition.</p><br>
<p>Totten Glacier Tongue () is a prominent glacier tongue extending seaward from Totten Glacier. Delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump (1946–47) and named by US-ACAN in association with Totten Glacier. Airborne geophysical surveys of the Glacier between 2008 and 2012 showed that deep warm water can access, melt and thin the underside of the ice tongue, potentially accelerating the glacier.</p><br>
<h2>Melt</h2><br>
<p>Scientists studying the effects of global warming proposed in 2007 that sea water encroachment in the area could destabilize a significant portion of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet. A study in 2008 concluded that Totten Glacier is currently losing mass. A study published in 2015 concluded that Totten Glacier has the largest contribution of ice thinning rate on the East Antarctic continent, and that the thinning is driven by enhanced basal melting, because of ocean processes, and affected by polynya activity. Additionally, warm Circumpolar Deep Water has been observed during summer and winter months at the nearby continental shelf below 400 to 500 meters of cool Antarctic Surface Water. The deep water was observed entering beneath the glacier at the rate of 220,000 m/s. The Totten Glacier is estimated to have a catchment area capable of generating a sea level rise of 3.5 meters in the event of a complete melt.</p><br>
<p>Guest Peninsula is a snow-covered peninsula about 45 mi long between the Sulzberger Ice Shelf and Block Bay, on Saunders Coast in the northwest part of Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica. Mitchell Peak, located on the peninsula, was sighted by the first Byrd Antarctic Expedition in 1929. This feature was defined and mapped as "Guest Island" by the United States Antarctic Service Expedition in 1940. It was determined to be a peninsula by USA Geological Survey cartographers from air photos taken by the USA Navy, 1962–65. It is named for Amy Guest, a contributor to the Second Byrd Antarctic Expedition, 1933-35.</p><br>
<p>As originally charted, the westernmost portion of what was then thought to be Guest Island was within the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand, but none of the peninsula is actually within the claimed sector.</p><br>
<p>The Ping River , along with the Nan River, is one of the two main tributaries of the Chao Phraya River. It originates at Doi Thuai in the Daen Lao Range, in Chiang Dao district, Chiang Mai Province. After passing Chiang Mai, it flows though the provinces of Lamphun, Tak, and Kamphaeng Phet. At the confluence with the Nan River at Nakhon Sawan , it forms the Chao Phraya River.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Khlung River (2)</p><br>
<p>Suan Mak River (Joins the Ping at 16&deg;29&prime;42&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;29&prime;56&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Wang Chao River (Joins the Ping at 16&deg;41&prime;02&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;16&prime;16&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Pra Dang River (Joins the Ping at 16&deg;44&prime;46&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;13&prime;05&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Raka River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Wang River (Joins the Ping at 17&deg;07&prime;25&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;03&prime;35&Prime;E longitude in the town of Tak)</p><br>
<p>Tributaries include Mo, Tui, Chang & Soi Rivers</p><br>
<p>Tak River (Joins the Ping at 17&deg;02&prime;18&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;04&prime;00&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Ko River (Joins the Ping at 17&deg;41&prime;17&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;45&prime;01&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Tun River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Pa River</p><br>
<p>Chaem River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;11&prime;19&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;38&prime;02&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Klang River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;22&prime;12&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;40&prime;55&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Li River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;25&prime;43&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;42&prime;08&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Tun River (2) (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Khan River (2) (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;30&prime;05&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;51&prime;04&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Wang River (2) (Joins the Khan at 18&deg;32&prime;58&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;51&prime;37&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Kuang River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;32&prime;33&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;56&prime;07&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Tha River (Joins Kuang at 18&deg;32&prime;23&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;56&prime;29&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>*Sapuat River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to inaccurate station data from Royal Irrigation Department)</p><br>
<p>Khanat River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>San River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates presently undeterminable due to recently built dam)</p><br>
<p>Tip River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates presently undeterminable due to recently built dam)</p><br>
<p>Phaem River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Mempin River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Lai River (2) (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Sa River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;53&prime;28&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;58&prime;22&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Rim River (Joins the Ping at 18&deg;55&prime;13&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;58&prime;02&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Nai River (Placement in tributary tree is approximate, geographical coordinates unavailable due to poor satellite resolution)</p><br>
<p>Taeng River (Joins the Ping at 19&deg;06&prime;08&Prime;N latitude, 98&deg;56&prime;49&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<p>Ngat River (Joins the Ping at 19&deg;09&prime;11&Prime;N latitude, 99&deg;00&prime;44&Prime;E longitude)</p><br>
<h2>Ping Basin</h2><br>
<p>The Ping Basin is one of the largest drainage basins of the Chao Phraya Watershed, draining 33,896 km&sup2; of land.</p><br>
<p>The greater Ping Basin, i.e. the basin of the entire Ping river system including its tributary the Wang River, drains a total of 44,688 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The main dams in the basin are the Bhumibol Dam and the Doi Tao Dam.</p><br>
<h2>National Parks</h2><br>
<p>The Ping itself originates in Huai Nam Dang National Park and flows through Mae Ping National Park.</p><br>
<p>Operation Bulmus 6, also known as the Green Island Raid, was a military raid conducted by special operations units of the Israel Defense Forces  against an Egyptian early warning radar and ELINT station located on a small island in the Gulf of Suez on the night of July 19, 1969.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Green Island, or Al Jazeera Al Khadraa, was a fortress built by British forces during World War II. Located 4 km south of the city of Suez and the mouth of the Suez Canal, it was a series of concrete bunkers sitting atop an 8 ft seawall, ringed by razor wire three rolls deep. Only 145 m long and 50 m wide, the island was heavily defended. Its garrison consisted of approximately seventy Egyptian infantrymen and twelve As-Sa&#39;iqa commandos, fourteen machine gun positions, two 37-mm anti-aircraft guns, and four 85-mm anti-aircraft guns. The island and surrounding area were within range of both Israeli and Egyptian artillery sited on opposite shores of the gulf.</p><br>
<p>Though the destruction of Egyptian early warning radar and ELINT sites was an ongoing goal during this period, known as the War of Attrition, the raid was as much prompted by a wish to send a "message" to Egypt as it was the actual destruction of the military targets. IDF Chief of Staff Chaim Bar Lev and Minister of Defense Moshe Dayan together decided that Egypt should be shown that no Egyptian position was safe, no matter how well-fortified or impregnable. As a target, Green Island fulfilled both goals. Green Island could have been more easily attacked by Israeli artillery or aircraft with less risk to Israeli life, but a commando raid would send a clear message and, it was hoped, have a negative effect on Egyptian military forces&#39; morale.</p><br>
<h2>Prelude</h2><br>
<p>It was decided that the operation would be a combined operation, split between elements of Israel&#39;s Sayeret Matkal General Staff Reconnaissance unit and Shayetet 13 Naval Commandos. Lieutenant Colonel Zeev Almog commanded the operation. The specific priorities were set at destruction of the 85 mm anti-aircraft guns, then the main northern building, then the radar and ELINT site.</p><br>
<p>The plan called for the Naval Commandos, using Zodiac inflatable boats, to lead the first of two waves in the assault. The second wave, by Sayeret Matkal, would consist of commandos, command and control and medical teams, and an extraction team. The second wave commandos would arrive to carry the fight just as the first wave ran low on ammunition.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<p>The first wave consisted of four teams of two officers and three commandos each and departed from the vicinity of Ras Sudar on the east bank of the Gulf of Suez at 2030. They approached to within 900 m of the island by boat, then swam, first on the surface and once closer underwater using rebreathers. Each man carried 40 kg of equipment. They surfaced at the island 8 minutes behind schedule, at 0138. The delay was caused by a more difficult swim than anticipated due to the currents. The first team breached the barbed wire allowing the second team to move in and counter the initial Egyptian response. The third team then crossed a small bridge and destroyed a defensive and observation tower and radar facility. The fourth team cleared a building to the north.</p><br>
<p>Half the raiders cleared or blocked the southern half of the island, the fortress, while the other half eliminated the radar and anti-aircraft equipment. This was complicated by the fact that most of their hand grenades were rendered useless by the swim at deeper than expected depths due to each mans heavy load. This breaching of the islands defences was supported by a separate Naval Commando team providing covering fire and diversion with a bazooka and a light machine gun from a small rock outcropping just south of the island, having reached it by Swimmer Delivery Vehicles (SDV). At this point the commander of the first wave, Lieutenant Dov Bar, signalled the second wave to come in using a flare. To avoid catching the approaching second wave in a cross fire a second flare by Bar signalled the covering fire and diversion team on the rock outcropping to stand down and withdraw, which they did successfully. The second wave, which had been idling in their Zodiacs in the Gulf, now trailing the first wave&#39;s recovered boats, roared up to the island. They quickly set up a command post and aid station and took out the 85 mm gun emplacements.</p><br>
<p>Not much larger than a football field, all combat on the island was conducted at close range. The Egyptian response to the first wave was uncoordinated at first, then became fierce, employing heavy and light machine guns and rocket-propelled grenades. After the arrival of the second wave, the efforts of the defenders became sporadic and again uncoordinated, with some jumping from bunkers into the sea, and eventually calling in artillery on their own position.</p><br>
<p>The extraction was ordered at 0215. By 0255 the teams were aboard the Zodiacs and heading for the eastern bank of the Gulf, having lost one Zodiac at the island to Egyptian artillery fire. At 0310, with the Israeli commandos still crossing the Gulf, satchel charges left on the island detonated destroying the remaining facilities. Egyptian artillery now shelled both the Zodiacs and the beachheads set up to receive them, driving several boats away and delaying their landings while they searched for alternate beaches to divert to. Another Zodiac was lost when it was abandoned by its team less than 400 meters from Green Island, but the team was recovered by helicopter at 0500 after spending several hours swimming toward the eastern shore.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>The result of the raid was the destruction of the entire Egyptian facility at Green Island. Israeli casualties were three Sayeret Matkal and three Shayetet 13 commandos killed, and eleven wounded—a casualty rate of approximately fifty percent. Egyptian casualties were 80 killed (almost the entire garrison) and an unknown number wounded. A number of the Egyptian casualties were caused by friendly fire; the shelling of the island by their own artillery. Following the raid the Israeli Air Force exploited the hole in Egyptian air defenses to launch Operation Boxer, engaging the Egyptian Air Force in over 300 dogfights and bombing raids. Naval Commando conducted another 80 raids along the Suez Canal until the 1970 cease-fire ended the War of Attrition.</p><br>
<p>Ami Ayalon received the Medal of Valor, Israel&#39;s highest decoration, for his actions during the battle.</p><br>
<p>DeSoto Caverns is a series of caves and a tourist attraction located in Childersburg, Talladega County, Alabama. Located in the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, it is touted as "Alabama&#39;s Big Cave". In addition to the caves, the park offers various other attractions, including a three-quarter acre maze known as the Lost Trail Maze, panning for gemstones, a climbing wall, and amusement park style rides. While on the caverns tour, visitors can view a sound, light, and water show that changes with the holidays and seasons.</p><br>
<p>Before being commercialized as DeSoto Caverns, the cave was well known locally as Kymulga Cave. There is evidence that the cave was formerly used by Native Americans, and it was mined during the Civil War.</p><br>
<h2>Cave structure</h2><br>
<p>The main room of the cave is just over ten stories high and larger than a football field. The entrance has been enlarged from an earlier period when it was a 4 ft by 8 ft hole in the side of a hill.</p><br>
<p>It was thought at one time that the cave system was very large, extending from near Childersburg to Talladega, Alabama. However, explorations have revealed only one place where the cave continues for any distance beyond the main room. At the left end of the rear wall of the main room, the cave continues some two or three hundred yards, ending at a blank wall and a small pool of water. With the possible exception of an underwater exit through this pool, there are no other known unexplored routes in the cave.</p><br>
<p>The caverns are noted for one of the largest continuing accumulations of onyx-marble stalagmites and stalactites in the world. DeSoto Caverns has actively growing rock formations (speleothems). For this reason, guests are not permitted to touch most of the rock formations.</p><br>
<h2>History of the caverns</h2><br>
<h3>Early Native Americans</h3><br>
<p>A burial site of the early Native American Copena culture can be seen in DeSoto Caverns. The term Copena comes from the first three letters of copper and the last three letters of galena, two materials commonly found in these burials. Caves were considered good burial spots by the Copena culture because they offered a peaceful and protective environment for the spirits of dead.</p><br>
<p>The burial was discovered in 1965 by a team of archaeologists from the University of Alabama. It contained the skeletons of five Native Americans, one of whom was a child. Of special note was an immense jawbone that scientists believe belonged to a man who would have been more than seven feet tall. In 1995, DeSoto Caverns officials cooperated with a group of Native Americans who wished to rebury the remains of these five people in an undisclosed area of the cave.</p><br>
<h3>16th century</h3><br>
<p>The arrival of Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto and his expedition in 1540 marked the beginning of European recorded history in Alabama. At the time of de Sotos arrival, the Muscogee people inhabited Alabama and other parts of the Southeast. In Talladega County, where DeSoto Caverns is located, the Coosa people represented the Muscogee. The Coosa chiefdom—the first in Alabamas recorded history—extended roughly from Gadsden to Wetumpka, on both sides of the Coosa River. Their capital, also called Coosa (meaning "canebrake"), was near what is now Childersburg; and just a few miles to the east was DeSoto Caverns, their ancestral cave.</p><br>
<p>The de Soto expedition spent a little over five weeks in the Coosa capital. The Coosa Micco (or chief) warmly welcomed de Soto during a ceremony that took place near the entrance of DeSoto Caverns. Despite the Micco&#39;s kindness and an offer of land, de Soto took him hostage and took slaves from among the Coosa people.</p><br>
<h3>18th century</h3><br>
<p>During George Washington&#39;s presidency, Benjamin Hawkins was appointed General Superintendent for Indian Affairs, with responsibility for all Native American tribes south of the Ohio River. In December 1796, he visited the upper Creek Indian territory and in his report to the president described the magnificence of DeSoto Caverns. This report makes DeSoto Caverns the first officially recorded cave in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>19th century</h3><br>
<p>Toward the end of the American Civil War, the Confederate Army encouraged families to mine caves for saltpeter, which is used to make gunpowder. The situation became so critical that the Army paid young men to mine saltpeter rather than enlist, with the result that DeSoto Caverns became a saltpeter-mining center. The cave&#39;s spring-fed well was an important asset, as the mining of saltpeter involves soil leaching, which requires a lot of water. The well, a leaching trough, and a reconstructed vat used in the saltpeter-mining operations of the Civil War period are on display in the caverns.</p><br>
<h3>Early 20th century</h3><br>
<p>In 1912, the caverns were purchased by Ida Elizabeth Brandon Mathis—a businesswoman and nationally recognized expert on farm economics—and a number of friends with the idea of mining the cave for its abundant onyx, a semi-precious stone. Unfortunately, Mexican onyx became popular about this time, and the partners could not compete with its lower price. The mine was left dormant for several years after initial mining tests.</p><br>
<p>During the Prohibition period (1920–1933), when sales of alcohol were prohibited in the United States, an illegal speakeasy and dance hall was opened in the cavern. Because of frequent shootings and fights, the caverns became known in the early 1920s as "The Bloody Bucket," and the establishment was eventually closed down by federal agents.</p><br>
<p>In the mid 1920s, Ida Mathiss son Allen bought out the other mining partners interest in the caverns and secured all underground rights to the property and surrounding areas. Throughout its first half-century, the cave was a popular place of exploration for young romantics and teenage spelunkers. In the early 1960s, Mathis, along with Mr. Fred Layton, began to develop the caverns into a show cave, and high-powered electric lights were installed to show off the caverns&#39; colorful onyx. The attraction was initially opened to the public under the name KyMulga Onyx Cave, after a group of Chickasaw Indians who had established the Indian village Kymulga a few miles away on Talladega Creek around 1960.</p><br>
<h3>Late 20th century</h3><br>
<p>Allen Mathis son and grandson—Allen W. Mathis, Jr., and Allen Mathis, III—took over the caverns operation in 1975. The following year the caverns were renamed DeSoto Caverns in honor of Hernando de Soto. New lighting was installed, pathways were widened, and improvements were added to allow larger groups of visitors. Back areas of the cave never before accessible to visitors were opened in 1980. The 1980s also saw the development of a light, sound, and water show and the addition of a playground, a gift shop, and a cantina. Camping facilities were enlarged and updated. In the 1990s, the climbing wall and gemstone panning features were added.</p><br>
<p>DeSoto Caverns was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on July 19, 1976.</p><br>
<p>Blestium ) was a small fort and iron working centre in the Roman province of Britannia Superior, part of Roman Britain. It has been identified with the site of the later town of Monmouth in south east Wales, located adjoining the confluence of the River Monnow with the River Wye. A plaque on the local bank records its position.</p><br>
<h2>History and remains</h2><br>
<p>The reference to Blestio in the Antonine Itinerary is the only one made to the settlement in Roman sources. It was located on the road between Caerleon (Isca Silurum) and Silchester (Calleva Atrebatum), midway between the fort at Usk (Burrium) and the iron making centre at Ariconium, believed to be at Weston under Penyard near Ross-on-Wye. It is suggested that the name may derive from the Greek word βλαστος, meaning "offshoot".</p><br>
<p>It is now generally accepted that a Neronian or pre-Flavian military fort was established at Monmouth, perhaps before 55 AD, making it the earliest Roman fort in Wales. The fort was probably established, either by Publius Ostorius Scapula or his successor Aulus Didius Gallus, during the first advances of the Romans against the Silures of south east Wales. The invading forces established a series of auxiliary forts along the Monnow valley into mid Wales, as well as advancing towards Usk where they established the fort of Burrium. The Silures fought a successful guerrilla war against the Romans for some thirty years before being defeated by the forces led by Sextus Julius Frontinus. The fort at Blestium is believed to have housed around 2,000 soldiers during the initial campaign, and later to have remained as a small fortlet.</p><br>
<p>Relatively few Roman remains had been found at Monmouth until recently. The first ditch of the fort was discovered by the Monmouth Archaeological Society behind properties on Monnow Street, within Monmouth town centre. There is substantial evidence of iron working dating from the Roman period, drawing on local iron ore and charcoal for smelting from local forests. This includes hearths and waste slag, both in the town centre and in the Overmonnow area. Stone buildings associated with 2nd and 3rd century iron working have been excavated near the crossing of the River Monnow. Coins found in the town date mainly from the third and fourth centuries, suggesting continuing civilian settlement.</p><br>
<h2>Monmouth Heritage Trail</h2><br>
<p>The Monmouth Heritage Trail includes a blue plaque recording the Roman fort of Blestium. This is attached to a late eighteenth-century town house which is now used as the Lloyds TSB bank in Monnow Street. The house was occupied, and probably built, by Philip Meakins Hardwick, who was one of the founders of the Monmouth Picnic Club of local gentlemen responsible for developing the viewpoint and buildings on The Kymin around 1800. The house became the home of Monmouth&#39;s town clerk and Viscount Nelson and his entourage were entertained there during their visit to the town on 19 August 1802. The building is a Grade II listed building.</p><br>
<p>Caesarea Philippi – Ancient Greek: Καισαρεία Φιλίππεια or Caesarea Paneas ; called "Neronias" for a short period of time – was an ancient Roman city located at the southwestern base of Mount Hermon. It was adjacent to a spring, grotto and related shrines dedicated to the Greek god Pan, and called "Paneas" since the Hellenistic period, a name which mutated in time to Banias, as we know it until today . The surrounding region was known as the "Panion".</p><br>
<p>The city is mentioned in the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. The city, called Banias and now nearly uninhabited, is an archaeological site in the Golan Heights.</p><br>
<p>Banias does not appear in the Old Testament. Philostorgius, Theodoret, Benjamin of Tudela, and Samuel ben Samson all incorrectly identified it with Laish (i.e. Tel Dan). Eusebius of Caesarea however, accurately placed Dan/Laish in the vicinity of Paneas, but at the fourth mile on the route to Tyre.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Hellenistic Paneas</h3><br>
<p>Alexander the Great&#39;s conquests started a process of Hellenisation in Egypt and Syria that continued for 1,000 years. Paneas was first settled in the Hellenistic period. The Ptolemaic kings, in the 3rd century BC, built a cult centre.</p><br>
<p>Panias is a spring, today known as Banias, named for Pan, the Greek god of desolate places. It lies close to the "way of the sea" mentioned by Isaiah, along which many armies of Antiquity marched. In the distant past a giant spring gushed from a cave in the limestone bedrock, tumbling down the valley to flow into the Huela marshes. Currently it is the source of the stream Nahal Senir. The Jordan River previously rose from the malaria-infested Huela marshes, but it now rises from this spring and two others at the base of Mount Hermon. The flow of the spring has decreased greatly in modern times. The water no longer gushes from the cave, but only seeps from the bedrock below it.</p><br>
<p>Paneas was certainly an ancient place of great sanctity and, when Hellenised religious influences were overlaid on the region, the cult of its local numen gave place to the worship of Pan, to whom the cave was dedicated and from which the copious spring rose, feeding the Huela marshes and ultimately supplying the river Jordan. The pre-Hellenic deities that have been associated with the site are Baal-gad or Baal-hermon.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Panium is mentioned in extant sections of Greek historian Polybiuss history of "The Rise of the Roman Empire". The battle of Panium occurred in 198 BC between the Macedonian armies of Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid Greeks of Coele-Syria, led by Antiochus III. Antiochuss victory cemented Selucid control over Phoenicia, Galilee, Samaria, and Judea until the Maccabean revolt. The Hellenised Sellucids built a pagan temple dedicated to Pan (a goat-footed god of victory in battle, desolate places, music and goat herds) at Paneas.</p><br>
<h3>Roman Period</h3><br>
<p>During the Roman period the city was administered as part of Phoenicia Prima and Syria Palaestina, and finally as capital of Gaulanitis (Golan) was included together with Peraea in Palaestina Secunda, after 218 AD. The ancient kingdom Bashan was incorporated into the province of Batanea.</p><br>
<h4>Herod and Philip (20 BC-AD 34)</h4><br>
<p>On the death of Zenodorus in 20 BC, the Panion, which included Paneas, was annexed to the Kingdom of Herod the Great. He erected here a temple of "white marble" in honour of his patron. In the year 3 BC, Philip II (also known as Philip the Tetrarch) founded a city at Paneas. It became the administrative capital of Philip&#39;s large tetrarchy of Batanaea which encompassed the Golan and the Hauran. Flavius Josephus refers to the city as Caesarea Paneas in Antiquities of the Jews; the New Testament as Caesarea Philippi (to distinguish it from Caesarea Maritima on the Mediterranean coast). In 14 AD, Philip II named it Caesarea in honour of Roman Emperor Augustus, and "made improvements" to the city. His image was placed on a coin issued in 29/30 AD (to commemorate the founding of the city), this was considered as idolatrous by Jews but was following in the Idumean tradition of Zenodorus.</p><br>
<h4>Province of Syria (AD 34-61)</h4><br>
<p>On the death of Philip II in AD 34, the tetrachy was incorporated into the province of Syria with the city given the autonomy to administer its own revenues.</p><br>
<h4>"Neronias" (AD 61-68)</h4><br>
<p>In 61 AD, King Agrippa II renamed the administrative capital as Neronias in honour of Roman Emperor Nero: "Neronias Irenopolis" was the full name. But this name held only till 68 AD when Nero committed suicide. Agrippa also carried out urban improvements It is possible that Neronias received "colonial status" by Nero, who created some colonies</p><br>
<p>During the First Jewish–Roman War, Vespasian rested his troops at Caesarea Philippi in July 67 AD, holding games over a period of 20 days before advancing on Tiberias to crush the Jewish resistance in Galilee.</p><br>
<h4>Gospel association</h4><br>
<p>In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus is said to have approached the area near the city, but without entering the city itself. Jesus, while in this area, asked his closest disciples who they thought he was. Accounts of their answers, including the Confession of Peter, are found in the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke. Here Saint Peter made his confession of Jesus as the Messiah and the "Son of the living God", and Christ in turn gave a charge to Peter.</p><br>
<p>According to the Christian ecclesiastical tradition, a woman from Paneas, who had been bleeding for 12 years, was miraculously cured by Jesus.</p><br>
<h3>Byzantine Period</h3><br>
<h4>Julian the Apostate</h4><br>
<p>On attaining the position of Emperor of the Roman Empire in 361 AD Julian the Apostate instigated a religious reformation of the Roman state, as part of a programme intended to restore the lost grandeur and strength of the Roman State. He supported the restoration of Hellenic paganism as the state religion. In Panease this was achieved by replacing the Christian symbols.</p><br>
<p>Sozomen describes the events surrounding the replacement of a statue of Christ (which was also seen and reported by Eusebius):-</p><br>
<h3>Early Islamic period</h3><br>
<p>In 635 AD, Paneas gained favourable terms of surrender from the Muslim army of Khalid ibn al-Walid, after the defeat of Heraclius&#39;s army. In 636 AD, a newly formed Byzantine army advanced on Palestine, using Paneas as a staging post, on the way to confront the Muslim army at Yarmuk.</p><br>
<p>The depopulation of Paneas after the Muslim conquest was rapid, as the traditional markets of Paneas disappeared (only 14 of the 173 Byzantine sites in the area show signs of habitation from this period). The Hellenised city fell into decline. The council of al-Jabiyah established the administration of the new territory of the Umar Caliphate, and Paneas remained the principal city of the district of al-Djawlan (the Golan) within Jund Dimashq, jund meaning "military province" and Dimashq being the Arabic name of Damascus, due to its strategic military importance on the border with Filistin (Palestine).</p><br>
<p>Around 780 AD, the nun Hugeburc visited Caesarea and reported that the town had a church and a "great many Christians".</p><br>
<h2>Bishopric (Byzantine Period until present)</h2><br>
<p>Caesarea Philippi became the seat of a bishop at an early date: local tradition has it that the first bishop was the Erastus mentioned in Saint Pauls Letter to the Romans. What is historically verifiable is that the sees bishop Philocalus was at the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), that Martyrius was burned to death under Julian the Apostate, that Baratus was at the First Council of Constantinople in 381. Flavian, (420) Bishop of Caesarea Philippi and Olympius at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD. In addition there is mention of a Bishop Anastasius of the same see, who became Patriarch of Jerusalem in the 7th century.</p><br>
<p>In the time of the Crusades, Caesarea Philippi became a Latin Church diocese and the names of two of its bishops, Adam and John, are known. No longer a residential bishopric, Caesarea Philippi is today listed by the Roman Catholic Church as a titular see. It is also one of the sees to which the Antiochian patriarchate of the Orthodox Church has appointed a titular bishop.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>Today Caesarea Philippi is a site of archeological importance, and lies within the Hermon Stream Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The ruins are extensive and have been thoroughly excavated. Within the city area the remains of Agrippa&#39;s palace, the cardo, a bath-house and a Byzantine-period synagogue can be seen.</p><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain is a potentially active flat-topped stratovolcano in the Stikine Country of northwestern British Columbia, Canada, located 74 km northeast of Wrangell, Alaska on the north side of the lower Iskut River and 30 km east of its junction with the Stikine River. It is situated in the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains and has been in existence since the Late Pleistocene stage of the Pleistocene epoch, which began 130,000 years ago and ended 10,000 years ago. The mountain gets its name from the needle-like lava spines or hoodoos that reach heights of 150 m, which give the volcano a strange appearance. This appearance makes Hoodoo Mountain different from other neighbouring mountains in the Boundary Ranges.</p><br>
<p>The volcano boasts an ice cap on its summit, and radar imaging of the rock beneath the ice has shown that the mountain&#39;s flat-topped summit is not just attributable to the ice cap, but the top of the mountain is flat as well. Beneath the summit ice cap lies an ice-filled volcanic crater that rises at an elevation of 1,850 m and a topographic prominence of 900 m. Except for minor irregularities caused by erosion, any contour line drawn is practically a circle.</p><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain consists of a balanced lava dome 6 km in diameter and throughout most of its history, it has been influenced by glacial ice, causing several periods of subglacial eruptions and interactions between volcanic activity and ice sheets. This volcanic process has created Hoodoo&#39;s structure and stratigraphy similar to subglacial volcanoes.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain lies on the southern axis of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, a large line of volcanoes extending from the Alaska-Yukon border to a point near Prince Rupert, British Columbia. The region in turn is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a seismically active region that encircles the Pacific Ocean and contains some of the world&#39;s most active volcanoes. The Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is produced by continental rifting as the Pacific Plate slides northward along the Queen Charlotte Fault, on its way to the Aleutian Trench, which extends along the southern coastline of Alaska and the adjacent waters of northeastern Siberia off the coast of Kamchatka Peninsula. As the continental crust stretches, hot magma rises and the near-surface rocks fracture along steeply graduated cracks parallel to the rift known as faults. Like many other rift-related volcanoes, Hoodoo Mountain generates passive and occasionally explosive eruptions. Hoodoo Mountain is one of the three large compositionally diverse volcanoes of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province along with the Mount Edziza volcanic complex and Level Mountain.</p><br>
<p>The overall flat-topped topography of Hoodoo Mountain led Canadian volcanologist Jack Souther to refer Hoodoo Mountain as a tuya, which are flat-topped, steep-sided subglacial volcanoes formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet. However, Hoodoo Mountain does not fit the normal tuya model because of its complex layering of rocks, although Hoodoo&#39;s unusual structure obviously results from frequent interactions between volcanic activity and Pleistocene ice sheets over the past 100,000 years.</p><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain contains at least two sets of prominent cliffs, producing a discontinuous, step-like topographic profile. The base of Hoodoo Mountain is largely delimited by a series of cliffs that range from 100 m to 200 m high, while Hoodoos southeastern flank is relatively gentle. Here, lava flows from the most recent volcanic activity cover earlier topography; the southeastern flank is smooth from around the summit to the Iskut River. The top of the lower cliff ring defines a broad bench with an elevation of about 1,000 m that terminates against an upper set of cliffs. The seconed set of vertical cliffs is between 50 m and 100 m high and surrounds the summit. A prominent dike, known as The Monument, rises more than 100 m in elevation on Hoodoos southwestern flank and is the remnants of a volcanic vent surrounded by thick deposits of lava and breccia formed during subglacial eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain lies in an area of high elevation ecosystems colonizing very erodible substrate. The mountain is generally poorly forested due to its high altitude and remote alpine location. This mountainous terrain has made Hoodoo Mountain a site for alpine tundra. Even though alpine tundra lacks trees, Hoodoo&#39;s lower flanks contain mountain hemlock. Because alpine tundra is located in various widely separated regions on Earth, there is no animal species common to all areas of alpine tundra.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciers</h3><br>
<p>The western, eastern and northern flanks of Hoodoo Mountain are covered by two valley glaciers known as the Hoodoo and Twin glaciers, while Hoodoos southern flank, which extends down to the floodplain of the Iskut River, is free from glacial ice. Hoodoo Glacier on the volcanos western flank extends at the head of the Hoodoo River, while the Twin Glacier on Hoodoo&#39;s northern and eastern flanks lies at the headwaters of the Twin River. In the past, Hoodoo Mountain has been covered by glacial ice more than 2 km thick.</p><br>
<p>The meltwater from the Hoodoo Glacier drains into the Hoodoo River while meltwater from the Twin Glacier drains into the Twin River. These two relatively small rivers are a source for the much larger Iskut River, flowing from the southern flank of Hoodoo Mountain respectively. Runoff from the Hoodoo and Twin glaciers and those on surrounding mountains is a source of fresh water for major salmon habitats and fisheries on the Iskut and Stikine rivers.</p><br>
<h3>Related features</h3><br>
<p>Lying just on the northern flank of Hoodoo Mountain is a small tuya known as Little Bear Mountain. Cross-cutting veinlets of obsidian indicate these volcanics were formed by partial melting in the mantle beneath Little Bear Mountain. Mantle xenoliths found at Little Bear Mountain may have originated from mid-crustal depths.</p><br>
<p>The relatively small size of Little Bear Mountain and its close connection with Hoodoo Mountain indicates it is a parasitic cone. Such geographical features are formed when the vent of the main volcanic edifice (i.e. Hoodoo Mountain) is blocked by cooled and solidified lava, forcing magma to intrude into the lines of weakness at the side of the main volcanic edifice under pressure.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain is a well-exposed example of peralkaline, phonolitic ice-contact and subglacial volcanism. Regional ice thickness during some of Hoodoo Mountain&#39;s subglacial eruptions might have been more than 2 km in thickness.</p><br>
<p>The main volcanics at Hoodoo Mountain are phonolite and comendic trachyte lavas and hyaloclastites, although some pyroclastic rocks also exist. The trachyte and comendic magmas erupted from Hoodoo Mountain and other Northern Cordilleran volcanoes are thought to have been created by fractionation of primary alkali basaltic magma in crustal reservoirs. The estimated volume of erupted material from Hoodoo Mountain is 17 km3, and at least six phases of eruptive activity are recognized at the volcano. The first phase of eruptive activity occurred 85,000 years ago in the Late Pleistocene stage of the Pleistocene epoch, producing lava flows, lava domes, and breccia deposits. These volcanics were erupted under more than 100 m of glacial ice to produce subglacial eruptions.</p><br>
<p>During the second eruptive phase 80,000 years ago, eruptions were no longer subglacial, but the volcano was surrounded by ice at least 800 m thick. Lava flows during this eruptive phase melted some of the thick glacial ice and ponded around the perimeters of Hoodoo Mountain, which quickly solidified to form a barrier behind which more lava piled up. Such ice-marginal lava flows are anomalously thick and are normally bounded by steep cliffs with fine-scale cooling joints and lots of volcanic glass. These ice-marginal lava flows form the massive lava cliffs near the base of Hoodoo Mountain and are among Hoodoo&#39;s most prominent features.</p><br>
<p>The third eruptive phase between 80 and 54 thousand years ago was followed by explosive activity that produced pyroclastic flows down the northern and western flanks of the mountain to create welded and unwelded ignimbrite deposits up to 100 m thick.</p><br>
<p>During the fourth phase of eruptive activity 54,000 years ago, eruptions were again no longer subglacial. Lava flows from this phase of activity overlie pyroclastic deposits from the third phase of activity and ice-dammed lavas from the seconed phase of activity.</p><br>
<p>Between 54 and 30 thousand years ago, the fifth phase of eruptive activity occurred subglacially and produced two distinct types of lava-breccia associations. The first subglacial eruption between 54 and 40 thousand years ago produced lava domes and monomict breccia, while the other subglacial eruption between 40 and 30 thousand years ago took place under thinner glacial ice.</p><br>
<p>The final phase of eruptive activity was effusive in nature with no explosive activity (VEI-0). This effusive volcanism produced lava flows with well-preserved lava channels on the northwest and southwest flanks of Hoodoo Mountain in the early Holocene epoch and are largely unglaciated, suggesting the final eruptive phase occurred in an ice-free environment.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity</h3><br>
<p>Hoodoo Mountain is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes associated with recent seismic activity: the others are Mount Garibaldi, and Nazko Cone. Seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma chambers, indicating possible future eruptive activity. Although the available data does not produce a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some of Canadas volcanoes are potentially active, and that their associated hazards may be significant. The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canadas most youthful volcanoes, and with long-lived volcanoes with a history of significant explosive activity, such as Hoodoo Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Current threats and preparedness</h2><br>
<p>The volcano continues to pose a serious threat to the surrounding area. In 1997, a group of university and industry scientists associated with the Geological Survey of Canada spent six weeks camping at the edge of Hoodoos summit ice cap to determine the volume of water on the volcanos summit which could be mobilized in the event of an eruption using ice-penetrating radar. This group included Mark Stasiuk and Catherine Hickson of the Geological Survey of Canada, Alison Rust, Kelly Russell and Ben Edwards of the University of British Columbia, Trevor Page of Lancaster University, Guy Cross and Jeff Schmok of Golder Associates and Jim Nicholls of the University of Calgary. However, the plain was left alone partly because of the uncertain volcanic potential in the surrounding environment. High columns of volcanic ash associated with explosive eruptions would have more widespread effects, including disruption of air traffic between Canada, Alaska, and Asia. However, this is a less possibility because most eruptions at Hoodoo Mountain are lava flows.</p><br>
<p>The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan, Canadas volcanic emergency notification program, was established to outline the notification procedure to some of the main agencies that would be involved in response to a volcanic eruption in Canada, an eruption close to Canadas borders, or an eruption significant enough to have an effect on Canada and its people. It focuses primarily on aviation safety because air traffic can quickly enter areas of volcanic ash. The program notifies all impacted agencies that have to deal with volcanic events. Aircraft are rerouted away from hazardous ash and people on the ground are notified of potential ash fall.</p><br>
<h3>Monitoring</h3><br>
<p>Currently Hoodoo Mountain is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano&#39;s magma chamber is. The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain. It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption. It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting.</p><br>
<p>Mount Edziza is a stratovolcano in the Stikine Country of northwestern British Columbia, Canada. The volcano and the surrounding area are protected within Mount Edziza Provincial Park. It consists of multiple peaks and ridges, with several glaciers flowing in all directions. The summit is topped by an ice-filled caldera, which is almost 2 km wide. The three main peaks around the summit caldera are the southwest summit, the southeast summit and the north summit. Ice Peak overlaps the southern flank of Mount Edziza.</p><br>
<p>Mount Edziza is one of Canada&#39;s highest volcanoes at 2,780 m. Snow and ice covered Mount Silverthrone in southwestern British Columbia has a height of 2,864 m.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>As early as 10,000 years ago, the Tahltan people, who now live in Dease Lake, Telegraph Creek and the Iskut, used obsidian from Mount Edziza to make tools and weapons for trading material. This is the main source of obsidian found in northwestern British Columbia, which was traded as far away as Alaska and northern Alberta. Obsidian is a type of naturally occurring glass that is highly valued for its cutting qualities. Like all glass and some other types of naturally occurring rocks, obsidian breaks with a characteristic conchoidal fracture, creating razor sharp edges.</p><br>
<p>More recently, Mount Edziza was made into the Mount Edziza Provincial Park to preserve the volcanic and culture treasures unique to the northern British Columbia area. It encompasses over 230,000 hectares of the Tahltan Highland. There is no vehicle access to the park, and there are only a very few basic facilities.</p><br>
<p>Mount Meager, originally known as Meager Mountain, is a volcanic massif in the of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc of western North America, it is located north of Vancouver at the northern end of the Pemberton Valley and reaches a maximum elevation of. Meager is capped by several eroded volcanic edifices, including, volcanic plugs and overlapping piles of lava flows; these form at least six major summits including Mount Meager proper which is the second highest of the massif.</p><br>
<p>The Garibaldi Volcanic Belt (GVB) has a long history of eruptions and poses a threat to the surrounding region. Any volcanic hazard ranging from landslides to eruptions could pose a significant risk to humans and wildlife. Although Mount Meager has not erupted for more than 2,000 years, it could produce a major eruption; if this were to happen, relief efforts would be quickly organized. Teams such as the Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) are prepared to notify people threatened by volcanic eruptions in Canada.</p><br>
<p>Mount Meager produced the largest volcanic eruption in Canada in the last 10,000 years. About 2,400 years ago, an explosive eruption formed a volcanic crater on its northeastern flank and sent avalanches of hot ash, rock fragments and volcanic gases down the northern flank of the volcano. Evidence for more recent volcanic activity has been documented at the volcano, such as hot springs and earthquakes. Mount Meager has also been the source of several large landslides in the past, including a massive debris flow in 2010 that swept down Meager Creek and the Lillooet River.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>Regional geography</h3><br>
<p>Mount Meager lies in the Coast Mountains, which extend for from Vancouver to the Alaskan Panhandle. It is about wide, cut by fjords created by glacial erosion. The Coast Mountains have a profound effect on British Columbias climate. Lying just east of the Pacific Ocean, they shear off moisture-laden air coming off the ocean, causing heavy rainfall on their western slopes. This precipitation is among the most extreme in North America, feeding lush forests on the mountain ranges western slopes.</p><br>
<p>Valleys surrounding Mount Meager contain old-growth forests. The area also features wetland habitats, plants of the and glaucous willowherbs. Wildlife such as wolves, wolverine, moose, raptors, black-tailed deer, and waterfowl inhabit the area as well as grizzly and black bears.</p><br>
<h3>Regional geomorphology</h3><br>
<h4>Garibaldi Volcanic Belt</h4><br>
<p>Mount Meager is part of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt (GVB), the northernmost segment of the. This volcanic belt includes cinder cones, calderas, stratovolcanoes and subglacial volcanoes that have been active in the last 10,000 years. The latest explosive eruption in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt occurred at a crater on the northeastern flank of Mount Meager about 2,400 years ago, which forms a clearly defined depression.</p><br>
<p>The GVB extends north from the Watts Point volcano to at least as far as Mount Meager. Since little is known about the volcanoes north of Meager, such as Silverthrone and the, experts disagree about their nature. For example, some scientists regard the Silverthrone Caldera as the northernmost volcano of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, while others contend that the geology of Mount Meager more closely matches that of the GVB. It is also unclear whether the Milbanke Sound Cones are part of the Garibaldi Belt or formed by different tectonic processes. However, there is evidence the Silverthrone and complexes are related to Cascadia subduction. Geologically these two volcanoes contain the same rock types as those found elsewhere in the Cascade Arc, including rhyolites, dacites, andesites and basaltic andesites. Such rock types are produced by subduction zone volcanism indicating volcanism at Silverthrone and is probably related to subduction. If these two volcanoes are true Cascade Arc volcanoes, is not the northernmost volcano of the Garibaldi Belt or the Cascade Arc.</p><br>
<h4>Cascade Volcanic Arc</h4><br>
<p>Volcanism in the Cascade Volcanic Arc is caused by subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate at the. This is a long fault zone lying off the from Northern California to southwestern British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate of more than per year at an oblique angle to the subduction zone. Because of the huge fault area, the Cascadia subduction zone can produce large earthquakes of magnitude 7.0 or greater. The interface between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates remains locked for periods of roughly 500 years. During these periods, stress builds up on the interface between the plates and causes uplift of the North American margin. When the plate finally slips, it releases 500 years of stored energy in a massive earthquake.</p><br>
<p>Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia. The mouth of the Columbia River empties directly into the subduction zone and deposits silt at the bottom of the Pacific Ocean, burying this large depression. Massive floods from prehistoric Glacial Lake Missoula during the Late Pleistocene also deposited large amounts of sediment into the trench. However, as with other subduction zones the outer margin is slowly being compressed like a giant spring. When the stored energy is suddenly released by slippage across the fault at irregular intervals, the Cascadia subduction zone can create enormous earthquakes such as the magnitude 9.0 Cascadia earthquake on January 26, 1700. However earthquakes along the Cascadia subduction zone are uncommon, and there is evidence of a decline in volcanic activity over the last few million years. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates converge to per year, about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Local geography</h3><br>
<p>Six main summits constitute the Mount Meager massif. The highest and northernmost summit is with an elevation of. is in elevation. Capricorn Mountain west of Mount Meager proper rises with an elevation of. Just west of Capricorn Mountain lies Mount Job, in elevation. Pylon Peak with an elevation of is south of Capricorn Mountain and. Devastator Peak, also known as The Devastator, has an elevation of and is the lowest and southernmost summit of Mount Meager.</p><br>
<p>Streams and glaciers have played a significant role in dissecting the massif, and its upper slopes are covered with snow and ice. Numerous feeder dikes to older units are exposed by deep erosion. Perkins Pillar, a vertical tower of brecciated lava, represented an erosional remnant of Meager until its collapse in June 2005. More than 10 streams drain meltwater from Mount Meager, including, Job Creek, No Good Creek, Angel Creek, Devastation Creek, Canyon Creek and. The massif is located within one of British Columbias many territorial divisions known as the Lillooet Land District.</p><br>
<h3>Local geomorphology</h3><br>
<p>The geomorphology of the Mount Meager massif resembles that of Glacier Peak, another Cascade Arc volcano located in the USA state of Washington. It consists of at least four overlapping stratovolcanoes that are younger from south to north. This includes Mount Rainier (500,000 years old), Lassen Peak (25,000 years old), Mount Jefferson (290,000 years old) and Mount St. Helens (50,000 years old). However, portions of Mount Meager formed in the last million years. The volcano is made of volcanic rocks ranging from rhyodacite to basalt. Rhyodacite forms a series of eroded volcanic plugs which represent the highest peaks of Meager. Their flanks are covered with their eruptive products and serve as the surface expressions of intrusions. As a result, they provide a unique opportunity to study the relationships between magma chambers and their lavas. The mafic, intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks of Meager were erupted from at least eight volcanic vents.</p><br>
<h3>Bridge River Vent</h3><br>
<p>The Bridge River Vent is a relatively young volcanic crater that formed during an eruption at Meager about 2,400 years ago. This eruption ranged in character from explosive to effusive and involved lava dome extrusion, pyroclastic flows, lahars and lava flows. Eastward migration of the spread material across Western Canada to deposit the Bridge River Ash. In the and Lillooet River area the ash occurs as a coarse-textured deposit with blocks of pumice up to in diameter. The texture rapidly becomes finer eastward from the Bridge River. At Big Bar on the Fraser River pellets are up to in diameter while pellets in the Messiter area have a maximum diameter of.</p><br>
<p>Situated on the northeastern flank of Plinth Peak, the Bridge River Vent has an elevation of. It has oversteepened walls covered with ice and debris from volcanic activity and slope collapses. The crater is roughly bowl-shaped, although it is breached on the northern side. Because the Bridge River Vent is located on the northern flank of Meager, it represents a satellite vent. The eruption that formed the Bridge River Vent was probably fed through a conduit from the magma chamber below Meager. A stress field controlled by regional tectonics has been commonly invoked to explain the dynamics of lateral flow of magma from a reservoir to produce such eruptions.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Naming</h3><br>
<p>The name Meager Mountain was adopted on May 6, 1924 as labelled on a 1923 British Columbia map. In 1966 the volcano was renamed. According to a BC Geographical Names letter written in March 1983, "the local name, Cathedral, was duplicated elsewhere, so the mountain was renamed Meager after the creek of that name which lies to the south of it". Meager Creek is named after J.B. Meager who owned timber licences on the creek. Despite its official name, Mount Meager is sometimes mistakenly spelled Mount Meagre or.</p><br>
<p>Meagers subsidiary peak names were submitted by Canadian mountaineer Neal M. Carter, who was a member of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club. Devastator Peak was officially named on in association with Devastation Glacier. Plinth Peak was officially named on as identified in Carters 1932 sketch map and article "Explorations in the Lillooet River Watershed". Mount Job and Pylon Peak were both officially named on January 17, 1957 as labelled on Carter&#39;s 1954 sketch map of the Lillooet River. Capricorn Mountain was originally identified as Mount Capricorn in the 1932 Canadian Alpine Journal, Vol XXI. According to the journal, "the name chosen for the 8440-foot mountain was Mt. Capricorn, a variation of the all-too-common appellation "Goat Mountain", applied by Bert to the stream which drains the Capricorn glacier at its base". Subsequently, the peak was renamed to on June 22, 1967.</p><br>
<h3>Mining and geothermal energy</h3><br>
<p>A large pumice outcrop more than long and wide has been the subject of mining operations since at least the 1970s. The deposit was first held by J. MacIsaac. In the mid 1970s the second owner W.H. Willes investigated and mined the pumice. It was crushed, removed and stored close to the village of Pemberton. Later the bridge that was used to access the pumice deposit was washed out and mining operations were not renewed. Mining resumed in 1988 when the deposit was staked by L.B. Bustin. In 1990 the pumice outcrop was bought by D.R. Carefoot from the owners B. Chore and M. Beaupre. In a program from 1991 to 1992 workers evaluated the deposit for its properties as a construction material and as an absorber for oil and stonewash. About of pumice was mined in 1998 by the Great Pacific Pumice Incorporation.</p><br>
<p>Mount Meager has been investigated as a potential geothermal energy resource. At least 16 geothermal sites have been identified in, the Mount Meager area being one of the five areas most capable of commercial development. At Meager Creek, there is potential for commercial development of a 100–200 megawatt power station. Nearby Pebble Creek also has "very good" potential for a 200 megawatt plant. Because the two creeks offer the greatest potential for commercial development, the Mount Meager area is the most promising site for geothermal power development in British Columbia.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic history</h2><br>
<p>At least 54 eruptions have occurred at Mount Meager in the last 2,600,000 years, ranging in character from effusive to explosive. Large northwest–southeast trending structures paralleling Harrison Lake and the Pemberton Valley may control volcanic activity at Mount Meager or at least create zones of crustal weakness that are penetrated by rising magma batches.</p><br>
<h3>First record of activity</h3><br>
<p>During the first eruptive period 2,200,000 to 1,900,000 years ago, eruption of intermediate to felsic pyroclastic rocks occurred at the southern end of the massif. Basal breccia, perhaps from an exhumed vent, underlies andesite and tuffs, flows, lava domes and breccia of Devastator Peak. It has a maximum thickness of and overlies a high ridge of bedrock that formed between 251,000,000 and 65,500,000 years ago during the Mesozoic era.</p><br>
<p>At the southwestern end of Meager, dacite with sparse phenocrysts of quartz, plagioclase and hornblende represents a thick remnant of subhorizontal lava flows. Although the first eruptive period is generally estimated to have started about 2,200,000 years ago, two andesite eruptions may have occurred about 2,400,000 and 2,600,000 years ago. The first might have produced lava flows and breccia whereas the later may have erupted mainly breccia.</p><br>
<h3>The Devastator and Pylon assemblage eruptive periods</h3><br>
<p>The second eruptive period between 1,600,000 and 1,400,000 years ago produced rhyodacite tuff, breccia, lavas and domes of. This thick geological formation lies on the south and west flanks of Pylon Peak and Devastator Peak. Its western portion consists of roughly layered tephra while its eastern end represents the lava flows and subvolcanic intrusions of a partly preserved vent. Here, The Devastator Assemblage is massive and steeply truncates basal breccia from the first eruptive period.</p><br>
<p>Volcanic activity of the third eruptive period occurred between 1,100,000 and 200,000 years ago. A thick sequence of andesite lava flows were erupted from the volcanic plug of Devastator Peak, creating the Pylon Assemblage. With a maximum thickness of more than, the Pylon Assemblage is the largest rock unit comprising Mount Meager. The lava flows are layered, separated by a thin layer of lapilli tuff and reddened breccia. A concentration of subvolcanic intrusions and coarse volcanic breccia clasts more than in length suggest that Devastator Peak is a major vent.</p><br>
<h3>Formation of the Plinth, Job, Capricorn and Mosaic assemblages</h3><br>
<p>The fourth and final eruptive period 150,000 to less than 3,000 years ago produced rhyodacite lava flows, domes, breccias and subvolcanic intrusions of the Plinth, Job and Capricorn assemblages. Around Mount Job, porphyritic hornblende, biotite and quartz rhyodacite lava flows of the Job Assemblage were erupted. They are prominently layered and locally columnar jointed. On the east side of Affliction Glacier, they overlie porphyritic andesite lava flows of the Pylon Assemblage. Later, rhyodacite lava flows of the Capricorn Assemblage were erupted and flowed over biotite rhyodacite of the Job Assemblage. The upper of Capricorn Mountain and Mount Job are formed by these lava flows.</p><br>
<p>Another sequence of rhyodacite lava flows were subsequently erupted and form the Plinth Assemblage. Mount Meager proper, a massive lava dome or volcanic plug, consists of steeply inclined flow layering and was the southern source of Plinth Assemblage lava flows and breccias. Plinth Peak was also formed during the Plinth Assemblage eruptive stage and is mostly composed of prominent columnar or partly jointed lava flows. Its north ridge and flat-topped summit contain three areas of steep flow layering and subhorizontally-oriented columnar jointing. These areas are possibly the remains of volcanic plugs or lava domes that were the northern source of Plinth Assemblage lava flows.</p><br>
<p>The best known and most documented eruption of Mount Meager is a large explosive eruption that occurred about 2,400 years ago. It sent a massive Plinian column at least high into the atmosphere. Prevailing westerly winds carried volcanic ash from this explosion eastwards to as far as Alberta. Nearby areas were devastated by heavy pyroclastic fall when parts of the Plinian column collapsed. Later, a series of pyroclastic flows were erupted and travelled from their source. After this, a lava flow was erupted that repeatedly collapsed on Meager&#39;s steep flanks, creating a thick, welded breccia deposit that blocked the Lillooet River. This created a lake just upstream which later collapsed to produce a massive. Large boulders were carried downstream for more than, but the destructive floodwaters continued further. Later, a small dacite lava flow was erupted, which cooled into well-preserved columnar joints. This is the latest known eruption of Mount Meager, as well as the largest known Holocene explosive eruption in Canada. However, it is unknown when this eruption ended.</p><br>
<p>In 1977, J. A. Westgate of the University of Toronto suggested that a smaller eruption may have occurred at the Bridge River Vent after the eruption 2,400 years ago, sending tephra southeast. A tephra deposit overlying the Bridge River Ash at Otter Creek shows strong genetic relationships with the Bridge River Ash, differing only by its absence of biotite. In earlier publications, this tephra is classified as part of the Bridge River Ash. However, it has been dated to be about 2,000 radiocarbon years old, indicating that this tephra is a few hundred years younger than the Bridge River Ash. Apparent absence of biotite and occurrence well south of the Bridge River Ash likewise favour a separate identity. Large-volume, fine-grained debris flows north of the volcano might have been caused by volcanic activity. If this is correct, the knowledge of eruptions at Mount Meager in the last 10,000 years is insufficient.</p><br>
<h3>Recent activity</h3><br>
<p>Two small hot spring clusters are found at Mount Meager, indicating magmatic heat is still present. The springs at Mount Meager might be evidence of a shallow magma chamber beneath the surface.</p><br>
<p>Between 1970 and 2005 more than 20 small earthquakes were recorded at the volcano. The magnitudes of these events were generally no higher than 2.0 on the Richter magnitude scale and they originated to less than below the surface. Other volcanoes in the with recorded seismicity include Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley and. Seismic data suggest that these volcanoes still contain active magma chambers, indicating that some Garibaldi Belt volcanoes are probably active with significant potential hazards. The seismic activity corresponds with some of Canada&#39;s recently formed volcanoes and with persistent volcanoes that have had major explosive activity throughout their history such as Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley and Mount Meager.</p><br>
<p>In 2016 Volcanologists with Natural Resources Canada monitored Mount Meager after discovering that the mountain shows signs of low-level volcanic activity. The biggest risk to the public is on Job Glacier, where large fumaroles were discovered. While there was some indication that the fumarole field has been around for the last 40 years, that July a helicopter pilot who was trained as a geologist noticed the fumaroles on the glacier. On top of that, throughout the summer of 2016 the NRC received reports of a sulphuric smell around the valley of Mount Meager.</p><br>
<h2>Threats and preparedness</h2><br>
<h3>Eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Mount Meager remains a major volcanic hazard capable of producing highly explosive eruptions that would threaten many populated areas throughout southern British Columbia and Alberta. Pemberton, a community downstream from Meager, faces high risk. If the volcano were to erupt violently, it would disrupt Lillooet River fishery as well as nearby mining and logging activity. In addition, Mount Meager lies in the immediate proximity of a major air traffic route. Volcanic ash reduces visibility and can cause jet engine failure, as well as damage to other aircraft systems.</p><br>
<p>Jack Souther, a leading authority on geothermal resources and volcanism in the Canadian Cordillera, has expressed concern about the potential for another eruption:</p><br>
<p>At present the volcanoes of the Garibaldi Belt are quiet, presumed dead but still not completely cold. But the flare-up of Meager Mountain 2,500 years ago raises the question, "Could it happen again?" Was the explosive eruption of Meager Mountain the last gasp of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt or only the most recent event in its on-going life? The short answer is nobody really knows for sure. So just in case I sometimes do a quick check of the old hot-spots when I get off the Peak Chair.</p><br>
<p>Because of concerns about potential eruptions and danger to communities in the area, the plans to create hazard maps and emergency plans for Mount Meager as well as Mount Cayley to the south.</p><br>
<p>Although very few eruptions in Canada have been witnessed by people, it remains nonetheless an area of intense volcanic activity. According to the Geologic Hazards &#39;91 Workshop, "priority should be given to eruption impact studies of the two recently active volcanic centres closest to urban areas, Mount Baker and Mount Meager. The former case will require a combined US-Canada-Washington State-B.C. effort". In addition, Mount Meager is not monitored closely enough by the to ascertain how active its magma system is. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide an accurate indication of activity under the mountain. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if Meager becomes highly restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption; the system might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting. If Meager were to erupt, mechanisms exist to orchestrate relief efforts. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would respond to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that would affect Canada.</p><br>
<p>Although Mount Meager is a potentially active volcano, as of 2003 there was no evidence of an imminent eruption. Many shallow earthquakes normally occur before a volcano erupts. As magma rises to the surface over time, it will probably create much more vigour and heat at the regional hot springs, as well as the formation of new springs or fumaroles. These signs generally occur for weeks, months or years before a potential eruption, although the possibility of an eruption occurring in the near future remains low.</p><br>
<h3>Landslides</h3><br>
<p>Scientists have argued that Mount Meager, made of altered volcanic rock which breaks apart easily, is the most unstable mountain massif in Canada and may also be its most active landslide area. More than 25 landslides have occurred at Mount Meager in the last 8,000 years. Debris flows, mainly from Mount Meager, have also filled Meager Creek valley to a depth of.</p><br>
<p>Large volcano-associated debris flows known as lahars pose a threat to populated areas downstream from glaciated volcanoes. Although lahars are typically associated with the effects of volcanic eruptions, they can occur whenever conditions allow collapse and movement of mud originating from existing volcanic ash deposits. Melting snow and ice, intense rainfall or the breakout of a summit crater lake can all generate lahars. Landslides at Mount Meager may also be indirectly related to climate change. Several tension cracks extend up to the summit, and as global warming causes glaciers to melt, the meltwater reaches deep into the massif. It then flows along the ruptured surfaces making these landslide zones.</p><br>
<p>Because Mount Meager is capable of producing large landslides, Meager Creek valley is probably the most dangerous valley in the. Although they lie some distance away from Meager, rapidly growing communities down the Lillooet River valley, such as Pemberton, are vulnerable. As Pemberton continues to grow it will eventually get pushed into the surrounding mountains, creating a major hazard for people living there.</p><br>
<h4>Prehistoric</h4><br>
<h4>Historic</h4><br>
<h4>=1975 landslide=</h4><br>
<p>The main Mount Meager landslide with known casualties was a massive rock avalanche that occurred on July 22, 1975. With a volume of, it buried and killed a group of four geologists at the confluence of Devastation Creek and Meager Creek. The landslide originated on the western flank of Pylon Peak and flowed down Devastation Creek for. Geologic studies have shown that the landslide was the result of a complex history of glacial erosion, loading and unloading of the toe of the slide mass caused by the Little Ice Age advance and subsequent retreat of Devastation Glacier due to global warming.</p><br>
<h4>=2010 landslide=</h4><br>
<p>On August 6, 2010 a massive lahar cascaded down from Capricorn Glacier at a speed of per second. Experts initially estimated that the volume of debris totaled, which would make it the second largest landslide on record in Canadian history, behind the that removed of rock from Johnson Peak. However, the Meager landslide was later estimated to be more than, which would make it the largest of all time in Canada.</p><br>
<p>The 2010 landslide at Mount Meager was wide and long, creating a dam across Meager Creek and the Lillooet River. This created a lake just upstream. Early concerns that the dam might collapse and flood the Lillooet River valley ended a day later, when part of the dam ruptured and slowly released the accumulated water. An evacuation alert was rescinded, and nearly 1,500 residents were allowed to return to their homes on the weekend after the landslide occurred. No injuries were reported.</p><br>
<p>The Tuya volcanic field is a volcanic field of tuyas located in far northern British Columbia, Canada, near the border with the Yukon Territory and focused on the area of the Tuya Range, a subrange of the Stikine Ranges of the Cassiar Mountains, though some vents are in the Kawdy Plateau, the northernmost part of the Stikine Plateau. Several small shield volcanoes, and postglacial lapilli cones and lava flows have been reported in this area. The only nonglacial volcanoes in the field are Gabrielse Cone and the West Tuya lava field.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanoes</h2><br>
<p>Volcanoes within the field include:</p><br>
<p>Ash Mountain</p><br>
<p>Blackfly Tuya</p><br>
<p>Caribou Tuya</p><br>
<p>Cottonwood Peak</p><br>
<p>Gabrielse Cone</p><br>
<p>Grizzly Butte</p><br>
<p>Mount Josephine</p><br>
<p>Klinkit Creek Peak</p><br>
<p>Mathews Tuya</p><br>
<p>Nome Lake South</p><br>
<p>South Tuya</p><br>
<p>Toozaza Peak</p><br>
<p>Tuya Butte</p><br>
<p>Volcano Vent</p><br>
<p>West Vent</p><br>
<p>Pohorje, also known as the Pohorje Massif or the Pohorje Mountains , is a mostly wooded, medium-high mountain range south of the Drava River in northeastern Slovenia. According to the traditional AVE classification it belongs to the Southern Limestone Alps. Geologically, it forms part of the Central Alps and features silicate metamorphic and igneous rock. Pohorje is sparsely populated with dispersed villages. There are also some ski resorts.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Pohorje is an Alpine mountain ridge with domed summits south of the Drava. It roughly lies in the triangle formed by the towns of Maribor (to the east), Dravograd (to the west) and Slovenske Konjice (to the south). To the northwest, it is bounded by the Mislinja River, to the south by the Vitanje Lowlands (Vitanjsko podolje), to the east it descends to the Drava Plain (Dravsko polje) and to the southeast it descends to the Pohorje Foothills (Podpohorske gorice). It measures about 50 abbr=on from east to west and 30 abbr=on from north to south and covers an area of ca. 840 abbr=on. Its highest elevations are Black Peak (Črni Vrh, Schwarzkogel) 1,543 abbr=on, the only slightly lower Big Kopa Peak (Velika Kopa), and Lake Peak (Jezerski vrh), which rises to 1,537 abbr=on. Forests cover over 70% of its surface.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Pohorje is a young mountain massif and represents the southeasternmost part of the Central Alps. It is the only mountain chain in Slovenia made of silicate rock. Its peripheral parts consist of Paleozoic metamorphic rock, and its central parts of igneous rock, particularly granodiorite (known also as the Pohorje tonalite) and dacite. Near the village of Cezlak lies the only known deposit of cizlakite (quartz monzogabbro; a green plutonic rock) in the world. The southern parts of Pohorje are known for white marble, which were quarried Roman times.</p><br>
<h2>Pohorje ski resorts</h2><br>
<p>The following ski resorts stand at Pohorje:</p><br>
<p>Rogla Ski Resort</p><br>
<p>Kope–Ribnica Pohorje Ski Resort</p><br>
<p>Maribor Pohorje Ski Resort</p><br>
<p>Trije Kralji Ski Resort</p><br>
<h2>Radio towers</h2><br>
<p>Near hilltops within the mountain range are located a TV and radio transmitter Pohorje and a military air-traffic control radar station RP-2.</p><br>
<p>Chippiannock Cemetery is a cemetery located on 12th Street and 31st Avenue in Rock Island, Illinois. The word “Chippiannock” is a Native American term which means “place of the dead”. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Rock Island was in need of a permanent cemetery in 1854. The towns population was 5,000 and the dead were being buried somewhat haphazardly in Bailey Davenport’s pasture, which is now Longview Park. The first board of directors of the Chippiannock Cemetery Association included Holmes Hakes, S.S. Guyer, William L. Lee, Bailey Davenport and Henry A. Porter. In 1855 Chippiannocks founders purchased 62 acre on Manitou Ridge and secured the services of noted landscape architect Almerin Hotchkiss to design a cemetery patterned in the rural cemetery style of Mt. Auburn in Massachusetts (America&#39;s first garden-style cemetery). Almerin Hotchkiss also designed Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn and Bellefontaine Cemetery in St. Louis.</p><br>
<p>The property consists of a western slope and the crest of Manitou Ridge. The site also features gently rolling wooded hills that climb to a broad plateau. It is located near the midpoint between the Mississippi and Rock Rivers. Hotchkiss designed a system of curvilinear driveways winding around the various burial sections.</p><br>
<p>The landscape design and spectacular examples of art and architecture earned the cemetery National Register status in May 1994. The cemetery was the third cemetery in Illinois to receive this recognition.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery includes impressive monuments by Alexander Stirling Calder and Paul de Vigne. Many of the monuments reflect attitudes about death and mourning from the Victorian Era. Some of the more memorable grave markers include life-size stone statues, a ship’s anchor, a six-ton granite ball, a baby’s cradle, the sleeping dog statue guarding the Dimick children and the mourning woman at the Cable monument.</p><br>
<p>The Sexton’s House is a Gothic Revival farmhouse that predates the cemetery. It continues to serve as the home of the cemetery superintendent. There are more than 25,000 people buried at Chippiannock Cemetery. The preservation of the cemetery is the responsibility of the Chippiannock Cemetery Heritage Foundation as well as other interested citizens.</p><br>
<p>Chippiannock was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on May 6, 1994. It was the first cemetery in Illinois to be listed on the National Register.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>It is an important location in Max Allan Collins&#39;s graphic novel Road to Perdition, which was the basis for the film of the same name, starring Tom Hanks and Paul Newman.</p><br>
<h2>Notable Chippiannock burials</h2><br>
<p>Napoleon Bonaparte Buford (1807–1883), American Civil War Brigadier General</p><br>
<p>Benjamin T. Cable (1853–1923), USA House of Representatives, 1891–1893</p><br>
<p>Ransom Reed Cable (1834–1909), president of the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad</p><br>
<p>George Davenport (1783-1845), one of the earliest settlers in Rock Island, developed what is now the Quad Cities, and namesake of Davenport, Iowa</p><br>
<p>Frederick Denkmann (1824–1905), co-founded Weyerhauser-Denkmann Lumber Company with Frederick Weyerhauser</p><br>
<p>William H. Gest (1838–1912), USA House of Representatives, 1887–1891</p><br>
<p>William Hoffman (1807–1884), American Civil War Brevet Major General</p><br>
<p>Minnie Potter (1865–1936), president and CEO of the Argus, a daily newspaper</p><br>
<p>Chester C. Thompson (1893–1971), Mayor of Rock Island, USA House of Representatives, 1933–1939</p><br>
<p>Benjamin Dann Walsh (1808–1869), First Illinois State Entomologist</p><br>
<p>Frederick Weyerhauser (1834–1914), founded the Weyerhauser Company</p><br>
<h2>Further reading</h2><br>
<p>“150 Years of Epitaphs at Chippiannock Cemetery”. Rock Island, Ill.: Chippiannock Cemetery Heritage Foundation, 2006.</p><br>
<p>“Passages: A Collection of Personal Histories of Chippiannock Cemetery”. Bettendorf, Iowa: Razor Edge Press, 2006.</p><br>
<p>"" (Images of America series). Arcadia Publishing, 2010.</p><br>
<p>The General Land Office Building, completed in 1857, in Austin, Texas is the oldest surviving state government office building in the city and the first building designed by a university-trained architect . The building features a dramatic medieval castle style known as Rundbogenstil, or "rounded arch" around the windows and doors. There is also a Norman style influence in the castle-like parapets. The exterior walls are limestone rubble smoothed over with stucco and scored to simulate cut stone blocks.</p><br>
<p>The building is located on the southeast corner of the Texas State Capitol grounds. One employee, William Sidney Porter - pen name O. Henry. Porter - worked in the office from 1887 to 1891, and would later attain fame as a writer. Some of his works would include those set at the building, such as "Bexar Script No. 2692" and "Georgia&#39;s Ruling".</p><br>
<p>The building functioned as the state&#39;s land office building until 1917 when the agency moved to a larger building across the street. From 1919 until 1989, the building housed museums run by the Daughters of the Republic of Texas and United Daughters of the Confederacy.</p><br>
<p>The building was modified during the mid-20th century but was restored between 1989 and 1992. The project returned the building&#39;s interior and exterior to resemble its late 19th-century appearance.</p><br>
<p>Today, it serves as the Capitol Visitor&#39;s Center, offering exhibits and tours about the Texas State Capitol. There is also a Texas Department of Transportation Travel Center that offers free maps and literature on travel destinations throughout the state.</p><br>
<p>The building was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1962 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on August 25, 1970.</p><br>
<p>The Carrie Eliza Getty Tomb, located in Graceland Cemetery in Chicago, Illinois, United States, was commissioned in 1890 by the lumber baron, Henry Harrison Getty, for his wife, Carrie Eliza. It was designed by the noted American architect, Louis Sullivan of the firm Adler & Sullivan. Getty became familiar with Sullivans work from the architects various Loop projects as well as from the mausoleum  Sullivan designed for Getty&#39;s late partner, Martin Ryerson.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Getty Tomb has been said to be the most significant piece of architecture in Graceland cemetery and the beginning of Sullivan&#39;s involvement in the architectural style known as the Chicago School.</p><br>
<p>The tomb, which stands on its own triangular plot of land, is composed of limestone masonry construction. Roughly a cube in shape, the bottom half of the tomb is composed of large, smooth limestone blocks. The upper half is composed of a rectangular pattern of octagons, each containing an eight-pointed starburst design. The cornice is banded with smooth limestone above intricate spiraling patterns below, and the top-edge of the roofline is straight and horizontal on the front and back and scalloped in a concave fashion on the sides.</p><br>
<p>When approaching the tomb, the obvious focus is the ornate doorway. An intricately ornamented bronze gate and door, patinated green over time, are spanned by a broad semi-circular archway. The voussoirs, emanating radially in long thin wedges, share alternating plain and intricately carved concentric bands. The twin gates as well as the door behind share a combination of geometric and floral details that incorporate the starburst seen in the upper patterned walls. The three other sides of the tomb house semi-circular, bronze-clad windows that mimick the arch and door details of the front. A plaster cast of the door was exhibited at the 1900 Paris Exhibition where it won Sullivan an award.</p><br>
<p>Henry joined his wife in the tomb shortly after he died in Paris, France on March 31, 1919 (date per his obituary in the Chicago Daily Tribune, published April 2, 1919). Their only child Alice was added in 1946. On March 10, 1971, the tomb was designated as a Chicago Landmark by the Commission on Chicago Landmarks.</p><br>
<p>Blair High School is a public high school in Blair, Nebraska, United States. The 140,000 ft&sup2; building was built in 1970 at a cost of $2.2 million. Sitting on 75 acre of land, it services approximately 750 students.</p><br>
<p>The school&#39;s former building, built in 1889, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1991. The original building was a two-story building in the Richardsonian Romanesque style, with a two-story Colonial Revival addition in 1929 and a one-story flat brick annex added in 1969. The building has been converted to apartments, offices, and a social hall.</p><br>
<p>The school&#39;s newspaper, known as The Bear Tracks, is a student-made paper consisting of seven sections, and is issued at the end of every month.</p><br>
<p>The schools colors are purple and white; its athletic teams are the Bears. Blair High School is a member of the Eastern Midlands Conference and competes in Class B athletics and in mostly Class A fine arts. Blair High Schools main rivals include Elkhorn and Gretna.</p><br>
<p>The Highlands is a historic building and property located at 7001 Sheaff Lane near Fort Washington, Whitemarsh Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The Highlands was built in 1794-1796 by Philadelphia merchant and politician Anthony Morris (1766-1860), and was designed by Philadelphia architect Timothy Matlack (1730-1829). It is a large 2 1/2-story, dressed fieldstone structure in the late Georgian style. The front facade features two, two-story, Ionic order pilasters. Morris was the speaker of the Pennsylvania senate, and had signed the bill authorizing troops to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion. He was also a director of the Bank of North America (1800-1806) and a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania (1806-1817). From 1810 to 1814, he was President James Madison&#39;s unofficial envoy to Spain.</p><br>
<p>Morris sold the property to Daniel Hittner (1765-1841) in 1808. In the five years that Hittner owned the estate, he accumulated 300+ additional acres. In 1813, it was sold to wine merchant George Sheaff (1779-1851). After Sheaffs death, the heirs sold off the majority of the estate, leaving a mere 59 acre remaining with Sheaffs grandson, John. In 1917, after the death of the last remaining Sheaff heir, it was sold to Miss Caroline Sinkler, and then subsequently sold to her niece Emily Sinkler Roosevelt in 1941. Roosevelt and her husband donated the property to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in 1957.</p><br>
<p>Today, the Highlands is a 44 acre site with a late 18th-century Georgian mansion and formal gardens. It is operated as a museum and historic site by the Highlands Historical Society, a non-profit educational organization. It is available to rent for weddings and parties.</p><br>
<p>The Highlands Historical Society also runs a number of social and fund-raising events throughout the year. One of these events is the annual Highlands Craft Show which began in 1982 as a means to raise funds to support the restoration of the 2 acre formal garden. The craft show has become an excellent venue where unique artisans throughout the United States can gather to display their crafts within the mansion. Some of the crafts that are offered for sale include fabric, fabric arts, pottery, hand-bags, and hand-crafted jewelry. Other popular events include a pumpkin and jack-o-lantern display which takes place around Halloween, and the Highlands Hunt Breakfast which takes place in early November. The Hunt Breakfast consists of a mock fox hunt equipped with a pack of hounds and approximately 20 local horseback riders who ride through surrounding properties, eventually returning to the mansion to rest and eat breakfast with friends and family.</p><br>
<h2>Owners of the Highlands</h2><br>
<p>1796 to 1808: Anthony Morris</p><br>
<p>1808 to 1813: Daniel Hittner</p><br>
<p>1813 to 1917: George Sheaff and heirs</p><br>
<p>1917 to 1941: Miss Caroline Sinkler</p><br>
<p>1941 to 1957: Emily Sinkler Roosevelt and her husband Nicholas</p><br>
<p>1957 to Present: Commonwealth of Pennsylvania</p><br>
<p>Waterhouse Island, part of the Waterhouse Island Group, is a 287 hectare granite island situated in Banks Strait, part of Bass Strait, lying close to the north-eastern coast of Tasmania, Australia.</p><br>
<p>The Waterhouse Island Group includes the Waterhouse, Little Waterhouse, Swan, Little Swan, Cygnet, Foster, St Helens, Ninth, Tenth, Paddys, Maclean, and Baynes islands and the Bird Rock, and George Rocks islets with their associated reefs.</p><br>
<h2>Location and features</h2><br>
<p>The large inland portion of Waterhouse Island is privately owned under freehold tenure. On 28 September 2011, 107 hectare of the island was proclaimed as the Waterhouse Island Conservation Area. This conservation area surrounds almost all of the island from the low-water mark to approximately 45 m inshore, as well as a 35 hectare region at the northern tip. A small sandy spit on the eastern coastline does not appear to be encapsulated by this conservation area and the tenure of this sandy spit remains uncertain. A lighthouse is located on 266 m&sup2; of crown land at the northern point of the island.</p><br>
<p>Waterhouse Island has an equable Mediterranean climate with warm summers and cooler winters. Rainfall, averaging approximately 600 mm per annum, is relatively evenly spread throughout the year, however with a bias to late winter months.</p><br>
<p>Waterhouse Island has extensive white sand beaches on the eastern and south eastern shores. West and northern coasts are primarily rocky. The island is used as a haven for sheltering yachts and other small boats as they travel through Bass Strait. Surrounding waters are popular for fishing, both finfish and various shellfish.</p><br>
<h2>History and use</h2><br>
<p>For the past 150 years the island has mostly been farmed, with sheep grazing the most prominent pursuit. The island has a house and a cottage, a four stand wool shed and implement shed, and a machine shed. The two dwellings are located in the lee of the prevailing westerly winds, on the eastern side, above sandy beaches. The island has a working wharf and two airstrips, one east-west and the other intersecting it. Freight boats, including Bass Strait trading vessels, also can beach on protected East and southeast sand beaches. Until the 1970s, grazing activity led to some degradation of vegetation. The present owners, who have had it since that time, have fenced off vulnerable areas and have undertaken an extensive revegetation program. The grazing land vegetation primarily consists of introduced pasture grasses. Livestock grazing had previously caused erosion which had affected the shearwater colonies. These are now stabilised and the fairy penguin and the shearwater rookeries are thriving.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The island is named after Captain Henry Waterhouse of the Reliance. Nicholas Baudin stopped at the island in 1802 mistakenly thinking the name meant fresh water could be found there, which was not the case.</p><br>
<h2>Fauna</h2><br>
<p>Recorded breeding seabird species are the little penguin and short-tailed shearwater. Introduced mammals include sheep, cats, fallow deer and house mice. Reptiles present include the metallic skink, spotted skink, three-lined skink, Bougainvilles skink, Whites skink and tiger snake.</p><br>
<p>Lake Waiau is a high-elevation lake located at 3,970 m above sea level on Mauna Kea, on the island of Hawaiʻi. It is arguably one of the highest lakes in the USA, and one of very few lakes at all in the state of Hawaiʻi. It is relatively small, only about 100 m across, and varies in size as the water level rises and falls. At high water levels a small outlet stream appears at the northwest end, but it is absorbed into the ground after a short distance. The name means "swirling water" in Hawaiian, though it is usually rather placid. It usually freezes in winter, but aquatic insects such as midges and beetles can be found breeding in the water.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Lake Waiau is located inside the Puu Waiau cinder cone at an altitude of 3970 m. It is approximately heart shaped and its diameter reaches about 100 m. The average surface area of the lake is around 6000 m. The size of its surface area fluctuates significantly over the year. It reaches its peak during spring with a maximal depth between 2 m and 2.5 m and by the end of the summer it often has shrunk to one third of its original size with a maximal depth below 1 m. A spillover into the Pohakuloa Gulch occurs, when the lake depth is more than 2.3 m. The lake is only fed precipitation which occurs primarily during the winter, its catchment area is about 135,000 m mostly located within Puu Waiau cinder cone.</p><br>
<p>The lake is an anomaly in the peak region of Mauna Kea as everywhere else the ground is unable to retain water. The exact nature of the impermeable ground layer of the lake is still unknown. It is assumed, that fine-grained densely compressed ash, basalt rock or small permafrost layer may play a role. No permafrost layer has been established so far for the lake area itself, but it was found at another location in peak area. Established however is 7.5 m thick sediment layer at the bottom of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Temporary shrinkage after 2010</h2><br>
<p>Since 2010 the lake has shrunk significantly and by September 2013 the lake was reduced to a mere puddle with less than 2% of its original surface size. The exact causes for the water loss are unknown. The suspects are drought conditions and the thawing of an assumed permafrost layer under the lake leading to increased seepage. After particularly wet winter in 2013/2014 however the lake recovered to around 75% of its original size in May 2014 and subsequentially returned to its normal size. Therefore, it is currently assumed that primary reason for the water loss were the drought conditions on Mauna Kea from 2010 to 2013.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>The lake is of some importance in Hawaiian mythology. Aside from Poliʻahu, there are two additional snow deities, Lilinoe and Waiau, who are associated with Mauna Kea, and according to Westervelt, the lake was probably named after the goddess of the same, who used to bathe in it. Originally, Hawaiians considered the whole peak region of Mauna Kea, including Lake Waiau, a sacred site, and only priests and chieftains were allowed to access it. Later, after the formation of the Hawaiian kingdom, the peak region was occasionally visited by members of the royal family. The last one to do so was queen Emma in 1881, who also took a bath in the lake during her visit.</p><br>
<p>Starvation Lake is a small recreational and fishing lake in Kalkaska County, in the USA state of Michigan. The 125 acre lake is approximately 0.8 mi long and has a maximum depth of 47 ft. The lake is fed primarily from submerged springs with the remainder from direct rainfall and runoff.</p><br>
<p>The unusual name has been explained in local folklore. The area around the lake, prior to being developed, was used primarily for hunting and trapping. It has been said that a hunter was setting traps near the water’s edge when he got trapped in one himself. Before help could arrive he had died from starvation. Another story is that criminals were hiding out in the area, there was a snow fall and couldn&#39;t make it to town so they were stranded there and died from starvation.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cayley is a potentially active</p><br>
<p>stratovolcano in the Sea to Sky Country of southwestern British Columbia, Canada. Located 45 km north of Squamish and 24 km west of Whistler in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains, it rises 2,264 m above the Squamish River to the west and 1,844 m above the Cheakamus River to the east.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cayley consists of ridges, rounded lava domes, and sharp eroded rocky pinnacles with the highest reaching 2,377 m in elevation. It lies at the southern end of a field of glacial ice called the Powder Mountain Icefield.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>To the Squamish people, the local indigenous people of this territory, the mountain is called taḵtaḵmuyin tla in7inaxe7en. This name of the mountain refers to the legendary Thunderbird, a creature in North American indigenous peoples history and culture. Like The Black Tusk further south, the rock was said to have been burnt black by the Thunderbirds lightning. This mountain, like others located in the area, is considered sacred because it plays an important part in their history.</p><br>
<p>The first recorded ascent of Mount Cayley was made by the mountaineers Eric C. Brooks, W.G. Wheatley, B.Clegg, R.E. Knight, and Tom Fyles in 1928. Beverley Cayley was a friend of those in the climbing party, and died on June 8, 1928, at the age of 29 in Vancouver. Photographs of Mount Cayley were published in the Canadian Alpine Journal Vol XX in 1931.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Like other volcanoes in southwestern British Columbia, Mount Cayley lies within the Coast Plutonic Complex, which is the single largest contiguous granite outcropping in North America. In contrast, Mount Cayley, Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi and Silverthrone Caldera are of recent volcanic origin.</p><br>
<p>Mount Cayley consists mostly of an igneous rock with a high iron content called dacite, although another igneous rock, rhyodacite, with intermediate composition of dacite and rhyolite is also present. Unlike many of the other volcanoes further south, Cayley does not dominate the surrounding landscape, which consists of high, rugged peaks.</p><br>
<h3>Origins</h3><br>
<p>Mount Cayley began erupting about 4 million years ago and has grown steadily since then. Like all of the volcanoes further south, Mount Cayley has its origins in the Cascadia subduction zone&mdash;a long convergent plate boundary that stretches from mid-Vancouver Island to Northern California. The subduction zone separates the Juan de Fuca, Explorer, Gorda and North American Plates. Here, the oceanic crust of the Pacific Ocean sinks beneath North America at a rate of 40 mm per year. Hot magma upwelling above the descending oceanic plate creates volcanoes, and each individual volcano erupts for a few million years. These volcanoes are commonly referred to as Cascade volcanoes because they were formed by Cascadia subduction.</p><br>
<p>The subduction zone has existed for at least 37 million years, and has created a line of volcanoes called the Cascade Volcanic Arc which stretches over 1,000 km along the subduction zone. Several volcanoes in the arc are potentially active. Lassen Peak in California, which last erupted in 1917, is the southernmost historically active volcano in the arc, and Mount Meager, just north of Mount Cayley, which erupted about 2,350 years ago, is generally considered the northernmost. A few isolated volcanic centers northwest of Mount Meager, such as the Silverthrone Caldera, which is a 20 km wide, deeply dissected caldera complex, are considered by some geologists to be the northernmost member of the arc.</p><br>
<h3>Structure</h3><br>
<p>Mount Cayley is the largest and oldest volcanic complex of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. Like other stratovolcanoes, it is composed of layers of hardened lava, tephra, and volcanic ash. Eruptions are explosive in nature, involving viscous magma, glowing avalanches of hot volcanic ash and pyroclastic flows. The source magma of this rock is classified as acidic, having high to intermediate levels of silica (as in rhyolite, dacite, or andesite).</p><br>
<p>Stratovolcanoes are a common feature of subduction zones. The magma that forms them arises when water, which is trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous basalt rock of the upper oceanic crust, is released into mantle rock of the asthenosphere above the sinking oceanic slab. The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressure/temperature conditions for specific minerals as the plate subducts to lower depths. The water freed from the subducting slab lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting and rises due to its density relative to the surrounding mantle rock, and pools temporarily at the base of the lithosphere. The magma then rises through the crust, incorporating silica rich crustal rock, leading to a final intermediate composition. When the magma nears the surface it pools in a magma chamber under the volcano. The relatively low pressure of the magma allows water and other volatiles (CO2, S, Cl) dissolved in the magma to begin to come out of solution, much like when a bottle of carbonated water is opened. Once a critical volume of magma and gas accumulates, the obstacle provided by the volcanic cone is overcome, leading to a sudden explosive eruption.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptive history</h3><br>
<p>Cayley was formed in relatively early Pliocene time compared to most other Cascade volcanoes, which were formed in the past two million years, and mostly in the past one million years or less. Cayley&#39;s first phase of activity began approximately four million years ago with the eruption of lava and ash, such as plagioclase-hypersthene-hornblende-phyric dacite flows, tephra, and pyroclastic breccia, and concluded with the formation of a central lava dome which develop the present summit spires of Mount Cayley.</p><br>
<p>Aggluinated vent breccia, enormous lava, and welded breccia with plagioclase-hypersthene-hornblende-biotite-phyric dacite erupted throughout Cayleys second phase of activity, forming the largest of a number of small pinnacles extending from the jagged summit ridge of Pyroclastic Peak called Vulcans Thumb on the southwestern flank of Mount Cayley about 600,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Lengthy erosion, which removed nearly all of the original outer cone of pyroclastic material, was followed by the eruption of satellitic vents. This third and final phase of activity began about 300,000 years ago with the eruption of a dacite lava flow into the extant valley of Shovelnose Creek and concluded with the construction of two small satellitic plagioclase-hypersthene-biotite-phyric dacite lava domes about 200,000 years ago.</p><br>
<h3>Current activity</h3><br>
<p>Mount Cayley is one of the eleven Canadian volcanoes associated with recent seismic activity; the others are Castle Rock, and Nazko Cone. Seismic data suggests that these volcanoes still contain living magma plumbing systems, indicating possible future eruptive activity. Although the available data does not allow a clear conclusion, these observations are further indications that some of Canadas volcanoes are potentially active, and that their associated hazards may be significant. The seismic activity correlates both with some of Canadas most youthful volcanoes, and with long-lived volcanic centers with a history of significant explosive behavior, such as Mount Cayley.</p><br>
<p>Several hot springs on Cayleys southwestern flank indicates that magmatic heat is still present, providing further evidence of continuous volcanic activity. The long history of volcanism in the area, coupled with continued subduction off the British Columbia Coast, indicates that volcanism has not yet concluded in the area. Because of this magmatic heat, Mount Cayley has been a target for geothermal exploration. Bottom hole temperatures of 50 °C and thermal gradients of less than 100 °C have been measured in shallow boreholes on Cayleys southwest flank.</p><br>
<h3>Related features</h3><br>
<p>Mount Cayley is surrounded by smaller volcanic features and volcanoes called satellite cones, also known as parasitic cones. These formed due to Cayleys volcanic vent being heavily blocked by cooled and solidified lava, causing magma to force out of the lines of weakness at the side of the volcano, forming a satellite cone. They commonly derive material from the same source as the initial volcano, although it may have its own magma chamber system. Similar volcanic formations are found elsewhere in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, including Mount Shasta in Northern California, which consists of four overlapping volcanic cones and several satellite cones, including Black Butte and Shastina. The small satellite cones at Mount Cayley become progressively younger from south to north, ranging in age from Pliocene-to-Pleistocene which forms a volcanic field. Because these features are related to the stratovolcano of Mount Cayley, the volcanic field is commonly referred to as the Mount Cayley volcanic field. The high elevations of the volcanic field, coupled with its cluster of mostly high altitude, non-overlapping vents, have resulted in several eruptions under the Powder Mountain Icefield, creating many ice-contact features. Due to the volcanic fields remoteness, it has not been studied or mapped in detail. As a result, the number and age of eruptions remains unknown.</p><br>
<p>Ember Ridge, the oldest and southern known parasitic vent, is a subglacial volcano that formed and last erupted during the Pliocene period. It comprises a chain of steep-sided lava domes with glassy, tortuously jointed lava, such as hornblende-phyric basalt.</p><br>
<p>Mount Fee, about 1 km north of Ember Ridge, is a parasitic volcanic plug comprising a narrow summit ridge about a kilometre (⅔ mi) long. It contains several spines reaching heights of 100 to 150 m. Several pyroclastic deposits are found at the volcano, indicating it might have been covered by layers of pyroclastic rocks that have now been mostly worn away by erosion. The complete denudation of the central spine as well as the absence of till under lava and pyroclastics indicate it is preglacial or Pleistocene age.</p><br>
<p>North of Mount Cayley lies the parasitic Pali Dome subglacial volcano which is partly covered by glacial ice. It formed and last erupted during the Pleistocene period, producing coarsely lava flows, such as plagioclase-hypersthene-hornblende-phyric andesite. Proximal sections of lava flows contain vertical, well developed, large-diameter columnar joints, and lie beneath scoriaeous oxidized flow breccia, suggesting a possible subaerial origin. Distal sections of lava flows are glassy and contain minor diameter columnar joints with horizontal or nearby radiating orientations. Lava flow terminations appear as subvertical cliffs up to 200 m in height, which are structures constant with eruptions against glacial ice.</p><br>
<p>Northwest of Pail Dome lies a parasitic subglacial volcano called Cauldron Dome which also formed and last erupted during the Pleistocene period. It consists of coarsely lava flows, such as plagioclase-orthophyroxene-phyric andesite. Its total geomorphology is comparable to that of a tuya. However, any precise record of volcanic glass or fine-scale jointing has probably been worn away by erosion. Two compositionally identical lava flows spread to the southwest from the base of the volcano. It is likely that Cauldron Dome was formed subglacially and the associated lava flows were erupted within a meltwater conduit.</p><br>
<p>Slag Hill, another parasitic subglacial volcano located just north of Mount Cayley, was erupted during the Pleistocene period, producing glassy lava flows, such as augite-phyric basaltic andesite. These lava flows were cooled to form steep-sided, glassy, finely jointed lava domes comparable to those found at Ember Ridge, and one minor, flat-topped bluff.</p><br>
<p>Ring Mountain, just north of Slag Hill, is a parasitic tuya composed of plagioclase-hypersthene-phyric andesite. The highest elevation of the volcano comprises bomb-like fragments of vesicular, oxidized lava, suggesting that the higher elevation lava flows were most likely subaerial. However, as is the case at volcanoes of comparable morphology elsewhere, lower elevations might have erupted subglacially.</p><br>
<p>Little Ring Mountain, also known as Little Ring Peak, is an almost circular, flat-topped, steep-sided volcanic feature about 270 m in height and 120 m wide on its top surface. It is known to be the northernmost parasitic cone and is similar in structure to a flat-topped, steep-sided tuya, although its inner stratigraphy is not yet known because the area has not been studied in detail due to its remoteness.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic hazards</h2><br>
<p>Volcanic eruptions in Canada rarely cause fatalities because of their remoteness and low level of activity. The only known fatality due to volcanic activity in Canada occurred at the Tseax Cone in 1775, when a 22.5 km long basaltic lava flow traveled down the Tseax and Nass Rivers, destroying a Nisga&#39;a village and killing approximately 2,000 people by volcanic gases.</p><br>
<p>Many towns and cities near Mount Cayley are home to well over half of British Columbia&#39;s human population, and there is a likelihood that future eruptions will cause damage to populated areas, making Mount Cayley and other Garibaldi belt volcanoes a major hazard. There are significant hazards from Canadian volcanoes that require hazard maps and emergency plains. Volcanoes which exhibit significant seismic activity, such as Mount Cayley, appear to be most likely to erupt. A significant eruption of the Garibaldi belt volcanoes would significantly impact Highway 99 and communities like Pemberton, Whistler and Squamish, and possibly Vancouver.</p><br>
<h3>Eruption scenario</h3><br>
<p>The western flank of the volcanic complex has been the site of several landslides. Several hot springs exist high up on the western flank of the mountain. There have been shallow earthquakes close to Mount Cayley since 1985, and seismic studies by seismologists and related geoscientists have discovered a strong mid-crustal reflector below it consistent with an unusually large, solidified, mafic, sill-like intrusion lying approximately 12.5 to 13 km below the mountain. The eruptive scenario is based on past volcanic activity in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, in terms of magnitude and sequence of events, to its neighbor Mount Meager about 2,350 years ago. This volcanic eruption was similar in size to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens and is Canada&#39;s most recent major eruption.</p><br>
<p>Significant indicator activity would be expected below the mountain weeks to years before magma penetrates its way through the Earth&#39;s crust. The large amount of seismicity and the sensitivity of the current seismograph in this region would warn the Geological Survey of Canada and would most likely cause an expanded monitoring effort. As the magma rises to the surface, the mountain would probably swell and the surface would likely rupture, causing greatly increased vigour in the hot springs, and the formation of new hot springs or fumaroles on the mountainside. In other words, they would get hotter. Minor and possibly large landslides could occur and may perhaps temporarily dam the Squamish River, as happened in the past without earthquake shaking and intrusion-related deformation. The continued presence of magma near the surface would eventually make contact with surface water, causing phreatic eruptions and debris flows, such as what occurred in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. By this time Highway 99 would be closed and Squamish would be at least partially, and possibly entirely, abandoned.</p><br>
<p>Eruptive activity itself could continue for years, followed by years of decreasing secondary activity. Volcanic ash would most likely spread throughout the Pacific Northwest, causing airports to be closed and relevant flights to be diverted or cancelled. The associated ash column would then extend eastward by the prevailing winds and disrupt air traffic throughout Canada from Alberta to Newfoundland and Labrador. The cooling lava would discontinuously spall units to create pyroclastic flows (super-heated mix of gas, ash, and pumice). The loose volcanic rock and pyroclastic material on Cayley&#39;s flanks and in valleys would be periodically reactivated into debris flows. Considerable structural improvements would have to be made to reclaim use of Highway 99 and Squamish area.</p><br>
<h2>Monitoring</h2><br>
<p>Currently Mount Cayley is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active the volcano&#39;s magma system is. The existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes and is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening beneath the mountain. It may sense an increase in activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide warning of a large eruption. It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting.</p><br>
<p>A possible way to detect an eruption is studying Cayley&#39;s geological history since every volcano has its own pattern of behavior, in terms of its eruption style, magnitude and frequency, so that its future eruption is expected to be similar to its previous eruptions.</p><br>
<p>While there is a likelihood of Canada being critically effected by local or close by volcanic eruptions argues that some kind of improvement program is required. Cost-benefit thoughts are critical to dealing with natural hazards. However, a cost-benefit examination needs correct data about the hazard types, magnitudes and occurrences. These do not exist for volcanoes in British Columbia or elsewhere in Canada in the detail required.</p><br>
<p>Other volcanic techniques, such as hazard mapping, displays a volcano&#39;s eruptive history in detail and speculates an understanding of the hazardous activity that could possibly be expected in the future. At present no hazard maps have been created for Mount Cayley because the level of knowledge is insufficient due to its remoteness. A large volcanic hazard program has never existed within the Geological Survey of Canada. The majority of information has been collected in a lengthy, separate way from the support of several employees, such as volcanologists and other geologic scientists. Current knowledge is best established at Mount Meager just north of Mount Cayley and is likely to rise considerably with a temporary mapping and monitoring project. Knowledge at Mount Cayley and other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is not as established, but certain contributions are being done at least Mount Cayley. An intensive program classifying infrastructural exposure near young Canadian volcanoes and quick hazard assessment at each individual volcanic edifice associated with recent seismic activity would be in advance and would produce a quick and productive determination of priority areas for further efforts.</p><br>
<p>The existing network of seismographs to monitor tectonic earthquakes has existed since 1975, although it remained small in population until 1985. Apart from a few short-term seismic monitoring experiments by the Geological Survey of Canada, no volcano monitoring has been accomplished at Mount Cayley or at other volcanoes in Canada at a level approaching that in other established countries with historically active volcanoes. Active or restless volcanoes are usually monitored using at least three seismographs within approximately 15 km, and frequently within 5 km, for better sensitivity of detection and reduced location errors, particularly for earthquake depth. Such monitoring detects the risk of an eruption, offering a forecasting capability which is important to mitigating volcanic risk. Currently Mount Cayley does not have a seismograph closer than 41 km. With increasing distance and declining numbers of seismographs used to indicate seismic activity, the prediction capability is reduced because earthquake location accuracy and depth decreases, and the network becomes not as accurate. The inaccurate earthquake locations in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt are a few kilometers, and in more isolated northern regions they are up to 10 km. The location magnitude level in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt is about magnitude 1 to 1.5, and elsewhere it is magnitude 1.5 to 2. At carefully monitored volcanoes both the located and noticed events are recorded and surveyed immediately to improve the understanding of a future eruption. Undetected events are not recorded or surveyed in British Columbia immediately, nor in an easy-to-access process.</p><br>
<p>In countries like Canada it is possible that small precursor swarms might go undetected, particularly if no events were observed; more significant events in larger swarms would be detected but only a minor subdivision of the swarm events would be complex to clarify them with confidence as volcanic in nature, or even associate them with an individual volcanic edifice.</p><br>
<p>Mount Price is a small stratovolcano in the Garibaldi Ranges of the Pacific Ranges in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is located southeast of the abandoned settlement of Garibaldi above the eastern flank of the Cheakamus River valley. With a summit elevation of and a topographic prominence of, it rises above the surrounding landscape on the western shore of Garibaldi Lake. A large provincial park surrounds Mount Price and other volcanoes in its vicinity.</p><br>
<p>Its northern and western flanks are overlapped by smaller volcanic edifices, such as Clinker Peak, which was the source for two thick lava flows about 10,000 years ago that ponded against glacial ice. These volcanoes were formed by volcanic eruptions from secondary vents rather than individual ones. As a result, Clinker Peak and other flank volcanoes are interpreted to be part of Mount Price.</p><br>
<p>The mountain is associated with a small group of related volcanoes called the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field. This forms part of the larger Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, a north-south trending volcanic zone that represents a portion of the Canadian Cascade Arc. Mount Price began its formation 1.2 million years ago and activity continued intermittently until about 10,000 years ago. Even though the mountain has not erupted since the early Holocene epoch, it could erupt again, which would potentially pose danger to the nearby populace. If this were to happen, relief efforts would be quickly organized. Teams such as the Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) are prepared to notify people threatened by volcanic eruptions in Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Price is one of the three principal volcanoes in the southern segment of the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. In contrast to most stratovolcanoes in Canada, Mount Price has a nearly symmetrical structure. It is one of the several Garibaldi Belt volcanoes that have been active in the Quaternary period.</p><br>
<p>Clinker Peak, a breached volcanic crater on its western flank, was formed during a period of volcanic activity about 10,000 years ago. Oxidation of Price&#39;s volcanic rocks has given the mountain a red colour.</p><br>
<p>Like other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, Mount Price formed as a result of subduction zone volcanism. As the Juan de Fuca Plate subducts under the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone, it forms volcanoes and volcanic eruptions. Unlike most subduction zones worldwide, there is no deep oceanic trench present along the continental margin in Cascadia. There is also very little seismic evidence that the Juan de Fuca Plate is actively subducting. As a result, the existence of active volcanism in the Cascade Volcanic Arc is the best evidence for ongoing subduction. However, volcanic activity along the Cascade Arc has been declining over the last few million years. The probable explanation lies in the rate of convergence between the Juan de Fuca and North American plates. These two tectonic plates currently converge at a rate of to per year, only about half the rate of convergence from seven million years ago. This slowed convergence likely accounts for reduced seismicity and lack of an oceanic trench.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic history</h3><br>
<p>At least three phases of eruptive activity have been identified at Mount Price. The first event 1.2 million years ago deposited hornblende andesite lava and pyroclastic rocks on the floor of a cirque-like basin after an Early Pleistocene glacial event. The Black Tusk, a deeply dissected stratovolcano north of Mount Price, was also active during this period. Because older volcanic events have not been identified in the Garibaldi area, this is the oldest known eruptive period in the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field.</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Pleistocene about 300,000 years ago, volcanism shifted westward and constructed the nearly symmetrical stratovolcano of Mount Price. Episodic eruptions produced andesite and dacite lavas, as well as pyroclastic flows from Peléan activity. Later, the volcano was overridden by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet, which covered a large area of North America during glacial periods of the Quaternary.</p><br>
<p>After the Cordilleran Ice Sheet had retreated from higher elevations, andesite eruptions from a satellite vent created a small lava dome on Price&#39;s northern flank. Possibly contemporaneous volcanism occurred at Clinker Peak about 10,000 years ago with the eruption of two hornblende-biotite andesite lava flows. They are both at least thick and long, extending to the northwest and southwest. The unusually large thickness of these lava flows is from them ponding and cooling against the Cordilleran Ice Sheet when it still filled valleys at lower elevations. A prominent feature of these lava flows are the levees that demarcate the lava channels. The northwest lava flow forms a volcanic dam known as The Barrier. This retains the Garibaldi Lake system and has been the source for two large landslides in the past. The most recent major landslide in 1855-1856 resulted from failure along vertical rock fractures. It travelled down Rubble Creek to the Cheakamus valley, depositing of rock. The southwest lava flow forms a mountain ridge called Clinker Ridge.</p><br>
<p>In contrast to Mount Cayley and Mount Meager, no hot springs are known in the Garibaldi area. However, there is evidence of anomalously high heat flow in Table Meadows near the southern flank of Mount Price. This indicates that magmatic heat is still present under the Garibaldi area and it is probably related to recent volcanic activity.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Naming</h3><br>
<p>Mount Price has had at least two names throughout its history. It was originally named Red Mountain for its red appearance, but the date when this name was adopted has not been cited. To avoid confusion, the name of this mountain was changed to Fissile Peak on September 2, 1930 for its fissility.</p><br>
<p>In 1927, Canadian volcanologist William Henry Mathews (1919–2003) identified Mount Price as Clinker Mountain in articles and journals. The name Mount Price was adopted on September 2, 1930 after a committee of the Garibaldi Park Board was set up to deal with nomenclature. It was requested that the Geographic Board of Canada to adopt Mount Price for this mountain after Thomas E. Price, a former mountaineer and engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Clinker Peak and Clinker Ridge were both officially named on September 12, 1972 to retain Price&#39;s earlier name Clinker Mountain.</p><br>
<h3>Protection and monitoring</h3><br>
<p>The volcano and its eruptive products are protected in Garibaldi Provincial Park. Founded in 1927 as a Class A provincial park, this wilderness park covers an area of. Lying within its boundaries are a number of other volcanoes, such as Mount Garibaldi and The Black Tusk. Located north of Vancouver in the glaciated Coast Mountains, Garibaldi Provincial Park contains diverse vegetation, iridescent waters and a rich geological history. The park also has abundant wildlife, such as squirrels, chipmunks, grey jays and flickers. Garibaldi Provincial Park is named after Mount Garibaldi, which is in turn named after the Italian patriot and soldier Giuseppe Garibaldi.</p><br>
<p>Like other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field, Mount Price is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma system is. The Canadian National Seismograph Network has been established to monitor earthquakes throughout Canada, but it is too far away to provide an accurate indication of activity under the mountain. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if Price becomes highly restless, but this may only provide a warning for a large eruption; the system might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting. If Price were to erupt, mechanisms exist to orchestrate relief efforts. The Interagency Volcanic Event Notification Plan (IVENP) was created to outline the notification procedure of some of the main agencies that would respond to an erupting volcano in Canada, an eruption close to the Canada–United States border or any eruption that would affect Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic hazards</h2><br>
<p>At least 63 volcanic events have occurred in the Garibaldi Lake volcanic field in the past 1.3 million years. Since the early Holocene epoch, there has been no eruptive activity. Future eruptions of Mount Price will probably be similar in character to those that have occurred throughout its 1.2 million year eruptive history. The minimum annual probability of an eruption occurring in Canada is about one every 200 years; for an effusive eruption the probability is about one every 220 years and for a large explosive eruption the probability decreases to about one every 3,333 years. This indicates that an eruption in the foreseeable future is more likely to be characterized by fluid lava rather than major explosivity. However, the majority of these effusive eruptions occur in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province of northwestern British Columbia and central Yukon, which is the most active volcanic zone in Canada. In the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, eruptions occur less often, but it is the site of Canada&#39;s most explosive volcanism. The change in eruptive style between the two volcanic zones is caused by the different tectonic processes that formed them. Nevertheless, the possibility of passive lava eruptions occurring in the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt cannot be ruled out.</p><br>
<h3>Effects</h3><br>
<p>Mount Price is near the highly populated southwest corner of British Columbia, indicating that it poses a serious threat to the surrounding area. Even though Plinian eruptions have not been identified at Mount Price, Peléan eruptions can also produce large amounts of volcanic ash that could significantly affect the nearby communities of Whistler and Squamish. This is mostly because of its increasing population and economic development.</p><br>
<p>Because andesite is the main type of lava erupted from Mount Price, lava flows are a low to moderate hazard. An exception is the long Ring Creek dacite lava flow from Opal Cone on the southeastern flank of Mount Garibaldi, a length that is normally attained by basaltic lava flows.</p><br>
<p>Concerns about The Barrier&#39;s instability due to volcanic, tectonic or heavy rainfall activity prompted the provincial government to declare the area immediately below it unsafe for human habitation in 1980. This led to the evacuation of the small resort village of Garibaldi nearby and the relocation of residents to new recreational subdivisions away from the hazard zone. Should The Barrier completely collapse, Garibaldi Lake would be entirely released and downstream damage in the Cheakamus and Squamish rivers would be considerable, including major damage to the town of Squamish and possibly an impact-wave on the waters of Howe Sound that would reach Vancouver Island. The landslide area is referred to as the Barrier Civil Defence Zone. Although landslides are unlikely to happen in the near future, warning signs are posted at the zone to make visitors aware of the potential danger and to minimize the chance of fatalities in the event of a slide. For safety reasons, BC Parks recommends visitors not to camp, stop or linger in the Barrier Civil Defence Zone.</p><br>
<p>The Yom River  is the main tributary of the Nan River . The Yom River has its source in the Phi Pan Nam Range in Pong District, Phayao Province. Leaving Phayao, it flows through Phrae and Sukhothai as the main water resource of both provinces before it joins the Nan River at Chum Saeng District, Nakhon Sawan Province.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Tributaries of the Yom include Pong, Ngao, Ngim, Sin, Suat, Pi, Mok, Phuak, Ramphan, Lai, Khuan, and Kam Mi Rivers.</p><br>
<h2>Yom Basin</h2><br>
<p>The Yom river and its tributaries drain a total area of 24,047 km&sup2; of land (called the Yom Basin) in the provinces of Sukhothai, Phitsanulok, Phichit, Phrae, and Lampang. The Yom Basin is part of the Greater Nan Basin and the Chao Phraya Watershed.</p><br>
<p>A controversial large dam was planned on the Yom River in the central area of the Phi Pan Nam mountains in Kaeng Suea Ten in 1991 but the project was later abandoned. The debate about the dam was opened again in 2011. Currently a proposal is being debated to build two smaller dams on the Yom River in the area instead of the Kaeng Suea Ten mega-dam.</p><br>
<h2>Protected areas</h2><br>
<p>The Yom River flows through Mae Yom National Park in Phrae Province.</p><br>
<p>Panju Island is an estuarine island in the Vasai Creek just north of Mumbai. The island is used by the Western Railway to connect the island of Salsette with the mainland at Vasai. It is located at {{coord|19.333|N|72.85|E|region:IN_type:isle}} with a maximum elevation of 1 m  .</p><br>
<p>Panju (Island) village is located in the Vasai creek, positioned between western railway’s Naigaon & Bhayandar stations. It is an ancient village. All the monetary transactions were carried from this village at the time of Sir Chimaji Aappa. The Village has given pivotal contribution in India’s Freedom fighting campaign. It has given twenty three freedom fighters and stands first in Thane district as far as its capacity of population is concerned. Area of Panju Island is around 600 acres, Aagri community dwells here. Main profession of the community is farming, fishing, salt farming & manual sand evacuations by tradition. There&#39;s a primary school as well as Government recognized secondary school.</p><br>
<p>The Berzdorfer See or Lake Berzdorf is situated near the southern border of Görlitz in Saxony, Germany. The artificial lake was created out of a former lignite mine &mdash; the flooding was finished on 6 February 2013. The planned surface area of the lake is expected to be about 10 km². Its name derives from the small village Schönau-Berzdorf to the southwest of the lake. It is expected to be one of the largest lakes in Saxony.</p><br>
<h2>Future plans</h2><br>
<p>The lake is planned to be a tourist site with a harbor for small-sized boats, a beach for swimmers, and dine-in restaurants. Other plans include a camp site and a golf course. An 18 kilometer long route for cyclists and hikers is available around the lakeshore. Sailing is possible from two locations in the southern part of the lake, i.e. at Tauchritz harbor and at Blaue Lagune.</p><br>
<p>The Mission House is an historic house located at 19 Main Street, Stockbridge, Massachusetts. It was built between 1739 and 1742 by a Christian missionary to the local Mahicans. It is a National Historic Landmark, designated in 1968 as a rare surviving example of a colonial mission house. It is now owned and operated as a nonprofit museum by the Trustees of Reservations.</p><br>
<p>The town of Stockbridge was established in the late 1730s as a mission community to the Mahicans. John Sergeant was the first missionary, formally beginning his service in 1735. His first house, built in the valley where the Indians lived, has not survived; this house was built in the white community on the hill above the town following his marriage in 1739. It remained in the Sergeant family until the 1870s, and survived Gilded Age developments of the late 19th century.</p><br>
<p>In the 1920s the house was purchased by Mabel Choate, owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate, and moved down into the valley. She and landscape designer Fletcher Steele restored the building, furnished it with 18th century pieces, and designed gardens to Steele&#39;s vision of what a colonial landscape might have been. Choate opened the house as a museum in 1930, and donated it (and eventually Naumkeag as well) to the Trustees of Reservations, who operate both properties as museums.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>Before the arrival of British colonists, the area that is now southern Berkshire County, Massachusetts was inhabited by communities of the Mahican tribal confederation. The population of these communities changed over the 17th century as war (sometimes with European settlers and sometimes with the neighboring Iroquois), disease, and migration made them smaller and more diverse. By the 1720s they had sold off most of their tribal lands, and lived in relative peace in two remaining tracts of land on the Housatonic River.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in the late 1720s the Mahicans became a point of interest to British missionary organizations, because they were seen as potential conversion targets and to counter the possibility of influence on them from Roman Catholic New France. This effort was managed in New England by a commission headed by the governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, Jonathan Belcher. Belcher suggested in 1730 that the province lay out a town in the Mahican lands, and that London missionary groups pay for a mission there. Funds were allocated for this effort in 1733.</p><br>
<p>In 1734 Massachusetts residents in the Northampton area met to organize the mission. John Sergeant, a recent graduate of Yale College, agreed to take on the task, and spent some time that fall among the Mahicans. After negotiations involving Governor Belcher and Mahican leaders, it was agreed in 1735 that a mission would be established, and Sergeant was ordained to serve as a minister among them. He immediately moved to the Mahican lands and began preaching to and baptizing them.</p><br>
<p>In 1736 a township of six square miles (16 km) was formally granted to the Mahicans by the Province of Massachusetts Bay, which would be incorporated in 1739 as Stockbridge. John Sergeant built a modest frontier house in the township, and the Indian village grew around this area, which included a meeting house used as a church and school.</p><br>
<h2>House history</h2><br>
<p>In 1739 Sergeant married Abigail Williams, the seventeen-year-old daughter of one of Stockbridge&#39;s English settlers. She wanted to live outside the village, so Sergeant had a new house, the subject of this article, built on Prospect Hill, overlooking the village.</p><br>
<p>The Sergeants lived there until his death in 1749. Abigail remarried and eventually moved out of the house, but it remained in the family. She returned to it after her second husbands death, living with her sons family until her own death in 1791.</p><br>
<p>Sergeant&#39;s second house remained in the family until 1879, when the property was sold to David Dudley Field, Jr., a New York City lawyer. Field amassed an estate of some 115 acre, on which he built a large summer house; the mission house he rented out for several summers to friends. It subsequently fell into disrepair, and was rescued in the 1920s by Mabel Choate, the daughter of New York lawyer Joseph Hodges Choate and owner of the nearby Naumkeag estate, who sought to establish it as a museum in memory of her parents.</p><br>
<p>Sometime around 1926, Choate purchased the mission house. The house was then disassembled, and its pieces carefully numbered. In 1928 the house was reconstructed at its present location under the guidance of landscape designer Fletcher Steele.</p><br>
<p>The houses gardens were created between 1928–1932 by Steele (who was also responsible for significant work on Naumkeags gardens). The house was furnished under Choate&#39;s guidance with pieces appropriate to the Sergeant period, and opened as a museum in 1930. She donated the house and surrounding property to the Trustees of Reservations in 1948, and bequeathed it part of her collection.</p><br>
<p>Included in Choates bequest to the museum was a two-volume Bible that had been given to the Mahicans in 1745 by Francis Ayscough. Choate had in the 1930s convinced the elders of the Stockbridge-Munsee tribe (successors to the Mahicans) to sell her the Bible for display in the museum. Tribe members objected to the sale after it took place, but no action was taken, and the Bibles location was lost to the tribe until it was spotted by tribal members in the museum in 1975. Following negotiations, the Trustees of Reservations returned the Bible to the tribe in 1991.</p><br>
<h2>House and gardens</h2><br>
<p>The mission house now stands on a lot approximately 0.4 acre in size. The layout of the house is a standard Georgian center-hall plan, with fireplaced rooms (a parlor to the left, and kitchen to the right) on either side of a central hall, which has a stairway to the second floor. Behind the parlor is an office space where Sergeant would have met with Indians. A diversion from the typical Georgian plan is the presence of a second entrance on the right side of the house, and a narrow hallway running from that entrance to the office. This made it possible for Sergeant&#39;s Indian visitors to reach his office without passing through the front of the house. The front door is adorned with a remarkably well-preserved specimen of a Connecticut River valley front door pediment.</p><br>
<p>The property features several outbuildings, generally dating from the time of the restoration. A small one-room frame building in the southwest corner serves as a visitor center. Behind the house is a long one-story building that houses museum exhibits, as well as a storage and utility area. It is connected to the house itself by a 25 ft grape arbor. Northeast of the house is a large barn-like building housing function facilities and a caretaker&#39;s apartment.</p><br>
<p>The gardens and outbuildings of the property were designed to Fletcher Steeles vision of what colonial garden should be. He drew on ideas seen in the gardens of George Washingtons estate at Mount Vernon to design a property where "a hundred forms of industry were carried on". Rows of vegetables, fruit trees, and bushes, were lined with flowers for aesthetic appeal, and spaces for carved out that he envisioned would have been used for performing outdoor work such as chopping wood, churning butter, and preparing preserves. Echoing statements made in his Design of a Little Garden, published just a few years earlier, Steele laid out the outbuildings in such a way to provide the homeowners a private retreat.</p><br>
<p>The house was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1968, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It contains a collection of eighteenth-century American furniture and decorative arts. It is open to the public on summer weekends or by appointment.</p><br>
<p>Mount Fee is a volcanic peak in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is located south of Callaghan Lake and west of the resort town of Whistler. With a summit elevation of and a topographic prominence of, it rises above the surrounding rugged landscape on an alpine mountain ridge. This mountain ridge represents the base of a north-south trending volcanic field which Mount Fee occupies.</p><br>
<p>The mountain consists of a narrow north-south trending ridge of fine-grained volcanic rock and small amounts of fragmental material. It is long and wide with nearly vertical flanks. Mount Fee has two main summits, the southern tower of which is the highest. The summits are separated by a U-shaped crevice that gives them a prominent appearance.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Fee is one of the southernmost volcanoes in the Mount Cayley volcanic field. This volcanic zone forms the central portion of the larger Garibaldi Volcanic Belt, which extends from the Silverthrone Caldera in the north to the Watts Point volcano in the south. The volcanic belt has formed as a result of ongoing subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate at the Cascadia subduction zone along the British Columbia Coast. This is a north-south trending fault zone about long, extending off the Pacific Northwest from Northern California to southwestern British Columbia. The plates move at a relative rate of over per year at an oblique angle to the subduction zone.</p><br>
<p>The edifice of Mount Fee is the remains of a volcanic feature that has been significantly eroded by glacial ice. The Black Tusk, a pinnacle of dark volcanic rock to the southeast, is also interpreted to be the remains of a deeply eroded volcano that was once covered with pyroclastic material. The present day edifice of Mount Fee contains several lava spines that reach heights of to above the main ridge.</p><br>
<h3>Eruptive history</h3><br>
<p>Volcanic activity at Mount Fee is among the oldest in the Mount Cayley volcanic field. Its volcanic rocks remain undated, but the large amount of dissection and evidence of glacial ice overriding the volcano indicates that it formed more than 75,000 years ago before the Wisconsinan Glaciation. As a result, the rocks comprising Mount Fee do not display evidence of interaction with glacial ice; the duration of volcanic events is unknown, and the exact timing of eruptive events is unknown. However, a large variety of volcanoes formed subglacially between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago in the vicinity of Mount Fee, including the lava domes of Ember Ridge to the south.</p><br>
<p>At least three phases of eruptive activity have been recognized at Mount Fee. The only exposed remnant of Fees earliest volcanic activity is a minor outcrop of pyroclastic rock. This is evidence of explosive eruptions during Fees eruptive history, as well as its first volcanic event. The second volcanic event produced a sequence of volcanic rocks on Fees eastern flank. This volcanic material was likely deposited when a sequence of lava flows and broken lava fragments erupted from a volcanic vent and moved down the flanks during the construction of the ancestral Mount Fee. Following extensive dissection, renewed volcanism produced a viscous series of lavas on its northern flank. The U-shaped crevice separating the two main summits of Mount Fee separates this lava flow from the main volcanic ridge. The conduit from which these lava flows originated was likely vertical in structure and intruded through older rocks deposited during Fees earlier volcanic events. This volcanic event was also followed by a period of erosion, and likely one or more glacial periods. Extensive erosion following the last volcanic event at Mount Fee has created the rugged north-south trending ridge that currently forms a prominent landmark.</p><br>
<h3>Petrography</h3><br>
<p>The dacite and rhyodacite rocks comprising Mount Fee contain up to 70% brown volcanic glass and up to 15% vesicles. About 25% of the rocks contain crystal content, including plagioclase, hornblende, orthopyroxene, orthoclase and sporadic quartz. The orthoclase crystals are interpreted to represent rock fragments that became enveloped during hardening of the dacitic lavas. A portion of the southwestern flank of Mount Fee comprises no volcanic glass, but rather composed of an abnormal cryptocrystalline matrix. This indicates that it might have developed as part of a subvolcanic intrusion.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Habitation</h3><br>
<p>Human habitation at Mount Fee extends from hundreds to thousands of years ago. Glassy volcanic rocks, such as rhyodacite, were widely used to make knives, chisels, adzes and other sharp tools before the arrival of Europeans in the 18th century. It was collected from a number of minor outcrops on the flanks of Mount Fee, as well as at Mount Cayley and Mount Callaghan. This material appears in goat hunting sites and at the Elaho rockshelter, collectively dated from about 100 to 8,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>In September 1928, Mount Fee was named by British mountaineer Tom Fyles after Charles Fee (1865–1927), who was a member of the British Columbia Mountaineering Club in Vancouver at the time. Subsequently, Mount Fee was one of the volcanoes in the Mount Cayley volcanic field illustrated by volcanologist Jack Souther in 1980. Others included Cauldron Dome, Mount Cayley, Slag Hill, Ember Ridge and Ring Mountain, which was titled Crucible Dome at the time. Souther created a geologic map the following year that displayed the locations of the volcanoes and the regional terrain.</p><br>
<h3>Monitoring</h3><br>
<p>Like other volcanoes in the Garibaldi Belt, Mount Fee is not monitored closely enough by the Geological Survey of Canada to ascertain how active its magma chamber is. This is partly because no major eruptions have taken place in Canada for over a hundred years and the volcano is located in a remote region. As a result, volcano monitoring is less important than dealing with other natural processes, such as tsunamis, earthquakes and landslides. No recent earthquakes are known to have occurred at Mount Fee. If it were to erupt there would likely be weeks, months or years of warning signs, such as clusters of minor earthquakes that would likely originate less than below the surface. They are generally too small to be felt by people, but the existing network of seismographs has been established to monitor tectonic earthquakes. However, the seismograph network is too far away to provide a good indication of what is happening under the mountain. It may sense an increase in seismic activity if the volcano becomes very restless, but this may only provide a warning for a significant eruption. It might detect activity only once the volcano has started erupting. A significant eruption at Mount Fee would probably have considerable effects, particularly in a region like southwestern British Columbia where the Garibaldi Belt is located in a highly populated area. Because of these concerns, significant support from Canadian university scientists has resulted in the construction of a baseline of knowledge on the state of the Garibaldi volcanoes.</p><br>
<p>Mount Napier in Victoria, Australia, is one of the youngest volcanoes in Australia. It erupted about 32,000 years ago. It was named by Major Thomas Mitchell after the three Napier brothers, who he had served alongside during the Peninsular War. Mitchell named it in August 1836, during his third expedition across south-eastern Australia. The local Aboriginal name for the mount is Tapoc. Mount Napier State Park is located 270 kilometres west of Melbourne and 17 km south of Hamilton.</p><br>
<h2>Location and features</h2><br>
<p>Mount Napier or Tapoc in the local Aboriginal language, has a composite lava shield with a superimposed scoria cone. The cone rises 500 feet (150 m) above the surrounding plains to an elevation of 1,440 feet (440 m), making it the highest point on the Western District Plains of Victoria. Mount Napier is part of the Newer Volcanics Province, which is the youngest volcanic region in Australia. The Newer Volcanics Province covers an area of 6,000 square miles (15,000 square km) and contains over 400 vents.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Napier Lava Flow followed the Harman Valley west from the volcano, and then south towards nearby Mount Eccles which is 25 km south-west of Mount Napier. Lava blisters or tumuli occur along the flow - these are house-sized mounds of basalt rocks. The blisters are the best developed in Australia and uncommon in the rest of the world. They are formed by the pressure of liquid lava pushing up against the crust. Several caves and lava tubes can also be found at Byaduk.</p><br>
<p>The native vegetation of Mount Napier State Park, on the western side of the mountain, varies from grassy woodland to tall open forest dominated by Manna Gum Eucalyptus viminalis, Blackwood Acacia melanoxylon, Austral Bracken Pteridium esculentum and Common Tussock Grass Poa labillardieri. This hosts a variety of native fauna, including birds, marsupials and mammals, including bats (Bird 1997).</p><br>
<p>Lower Shawneetown , also known as the Bentley Site, Shannoah and Sonnontio, is a Late Fort Ancient culture Madisonville horizon  archaeological site overlain by an 18th-century Shawnee village; it is located near South Portsmouth in Greenup County, Kentucky. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on April 28, 1983.</p><br>
<p>Between about 1735 and 1758 Lower Shawneetown became a center for commerce and diplomacy, "a sort of republic populated by a diverse array of migratory peoples, from the Iroquois to the Delawares, and supplied by British traders, Lower Shawneetown had become a formidable threat to French ambitions. With a fairly large number of bad characters from various nations Lower Shawneetown posed a significant challenge to France and Great Britain alike. The community was less a village and more of a district extending along the wide Scioto River and narrower Ohio River floodplains and terraces. It was a sprawling series of wickiups and longhouses...French and British traders regarded Lower Shawneetown as one of two capitals of the Shawnee tribe."</p><br>
<p>The town was destroyed by floods in November, 1758 and the population relocated to another site further up the Scioto River.</p><br>
<h2>Portsmouth Earthworks, Group A</h2><br>
<p>A feature of the site is the "Old Fort Earthworks", a part of the Portsmouth Earthworks known as Group A. Built between 100 BCE and 500 CE by the Adena culture, the earthworks are a series of large rectangular enclosures connected to the main features of the group (located across the Ohio River in Portsmouth) by an earthen causeway.</p><br>
<h2>Fort Ancient settlement</h2><br>
<p>The site is a 1.2 hectare village on the second flood terrace of the Ohio River, located across from the mouth of the Scioto River. It was excavated in the 1930s and was discovered to have had similar structures and building techniques as those found at another nearby Fort Ancient site, the Hardin Village Site located 13 km up the Ohio. Also found during the excavations were distinctive Madisonville horizon pottery, including cordmarked, plain and grooved-paddle jars, as well as a variety of chert points, scrapers and ceremonial pipes.</p><br>
<p>Many 18th century European trade goods were also found at the site, including gun spalls and gunflints, gun parts (sideplate, mainspring, ram pipes, and breech plugs), wire-wound and drawn glass beads, a button, pendants, an earring, cutlery, kettle ears, a key, nails, chisels, hooks, a buckle, a Jew&#39;s harp, and pieces of a pair of iron scissors.</p><br>
<h2>Shawnee village</h2><br>
<p>Established in the mid-1730s at the mouth of the Scioto River, this was one of the earliest known Shawnee settlements on both sides of the Ohio River. The name of the town was not recorded, but scholars believe it may have been "Chalahgawtha," a Shawnee word meaning "principal place". The opportunity to trade for furs and to broker political alliances also attracted both British and French traders and the town became a key center in dealings with other tribes and with Europeans before it was abandoned about November 1758.</p><br>
<h3>Visits by French soldiers</h3><br>
<p>Both the British and the French became increasingly concerned about the growing Native American settlements in the region, including Lower Shawneetowns neighbors, Logstown, Pickawillany, and Sandusky. The earliest reference to it is in a July 27, 1734 letter by François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, describing an English traders warehouse (probably that of George Croghan and William Trent) in "the home of the Shawnees on the Ohio River". The French had focused much attention on Canada, allowing English traders to establish themselves in the Ohio Valley, but in the late 1730s the French began trying to correct this by sending expeditions into the region.</p><br>
<p>The earliest eyewitness account is a report by Baron de Longueuil from July 1739. A French military expedition made up of 123 French soldiers and 319 Native American warriors from Quebec, under the command of Charles III Le Moyne, was on its way to help defend New Orleans from the Chickasaw, who were attacking the city on behalf of England. While on their journey down the Ohio River towards the Mississippi, they met with local chiefs in a village on the banks of the Scioto.</p><br>
<p>Concerned that this vibrant community would be readily influenced by trade goods supplied by the British, the Governor of New France, Charles de la Boische, Marquis de Beauharnois sent emissaries to Lower Shawneetown in 1741 to try to persuade the Shawnees to relocate to Detroit, but the proposal was rejected.</p><br>
<p>In the summer of 1749 Pierre Joseph Céloron de Blainville moved down the Ohio River on his "lead plate expedition," burying lead plates at six locations where major tributaries entered the Ohio. The plates were inscribed to claim the area for France. Céloron also sought out British traders and warned them to leave this territory which belonged to France. Hearing that a French military force was approaching, the inhabitants hastily erected a stockade and fired three shots at a delegation which reached the gates bearing a French flag. The Shawnees reluctantly opened the gates and invited Céloron to enter; he summoned the five Pennsylvania traders who were then living in the town and ordered them to leave, but they refused. Céloron considered plundering their goods, but as he was confronted by a large and well-armed Shawnee force, he desisted and continued on his way.</p><br>
<h3>Peter Chartier</h3><br>
<p>In April 1745 Peter Chartier and about 400 Shawnees took refuge in Lower Shawneetown after defying Governor Patrick Gordon in a conflict over the sale of rum to the Shawnees. Chartier opposed the sale of alcohol in Native American communities and threatened to destroy any shipments of rum that he found. He persuaded members of the Pekowi Shawnee to leave Pennsylvania and migrate south. After staying in Lower Shawneetown for a few weeks they proceeded into Kentucky to found the community of Eskippakithiki.</p><br>
<h3>Visits by British traders</h3><br>
<p>Gist&#39;s journal entry from January 29, 1751:</p><br>
<p>The journal terminates with a detailed description of a festival Gist witnessed during his stay in Lower Shawneetown.</p><br>
<p>As a community of 300 men, the town may have had a total population of between 1,200 and 1,500. The town consisted of 40 houses on the Kentucky side and 100 houses on the Ohio side, including a 90 ft long council house. The Shawnee had relocated part of the village on the east bank of the Scioto River and on the Kentucky side of the Ohio River after a flood destroyed much of the original village which had been situated on the Scioto River&#39;s west bank.</p><br>
<h3>Captives</h3><br>
<p>At least two captives taken during raids on American pioneer settlements are known to have lived in Lower Shawneetown: (1732–1801) was kidnapped in 1744 from her home in Berks County, Pennsylvania and lived in the town for five years. She was eventually sold to French-Canadian traders and after two more years in Canada, managed to return home in 1751. Mary Draper Ingles (1732–1815) was kidnapped during the Draper&#39;s Meadow massacre in July 1755 and taken to Lower Shawneetown, but she escaped in mid-October with another woman and walked several hundred miles to return to her home.</p><br>
<h3>Destruction</h3><br>
<p>Charles Augustus Hale states that in about November, 1758, "...a very extreme, if not unprecedented, flood in the rivers swept off a greater part of the town, and it was never rebuilt at that place; but the tribe moved its headquarters...up the Scioto and built up successively the Old and New Chillicothe, or Che-le-co-the Towns. There remained a Shawnee village at the mouth of the Scioto, which was then built upon the other side, the present site of the city of Portsmouth."</p><br>
<p>When Mary Jemison, a captive of the Seneca, spent the winter at the mouth of the Scioto River in 1758–1759, she reported that Lower Shawneetown had been abandoned and relocated further up the Scioto River. It is possible that this new village was Chalahgawtha at the site of present-day Chillicothe, Ohio.</p><br>
<p>Castleberry Hill is a neighborhood in Atlanta, Georgia, adjacent to and southwest of the Downtown Atlanta. It is a federally recognized historic district since 1985 and became a City of Atlanta Landmark District in 2006. Since 2000, the area has experienced an influx of residents and new businesses. The area, which is made up predominantly of Walker, Nelson and Peters Streets is home to a growing number of small art galleries, restaurants, coffee shops, and loft residences. Less than one mile from the Historically Black colleges and universities that make up the Atlanta University Center Consortium and less than five miles from the expansive downtown campus of Georgia State University, the area also offers pristine local shopping as well as spa services, like. Other notable area eateries include, a spacious Mexican-themed restaurant, bar and fine home furnishings establishment, often used as a point of reference. Castleberry Hill residents gather at local watering holes, such as and.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area in the city limits of Atlanta known today as Castleberry Hill was originally part of the renegade Snake Nation community that functioned during the 1850s. According to an article from Atlanta Magazine, Castleberry Hill was, by the mid-nineteenth century, a red-light district filled with prostitutes, gambling, and cockfighting. By the time the Civil War began, however, this area was in the process of industrialization. Items such as terra cotta and other building materials were produced then in Atlanta factories. Additionally, Castleberry Hill then contained cotton warehousing and grocers. One of those grocers was Daniel Castleberry, for whom the area was named. Daniel Castleberry, however, is believed to have been an established businessman in the area as a result of his winning the land in 1821 in a Georgia land lottery. By the early 1990s, the area had fallen on hard times, serving as the backdrop for dystopic films such as Freejack and Kalifornia. Loft conversions began in the 1980s, and by 1992, there were 120 lofts with 150 residents. The 1996 Olympics saw another influx of development. By the early 21st century, however, Castleberry Hill began another renaissance with major motion pictures and TV series such as being filmed in the area; the now well-known Castleberry Hill Art Stroll, which is held on the second Friday of each month, has become yet another popular event in this area.</p><br>
<p>Bow Glacier is located in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada, approximately 37 km northwest of Lake Louise. It can be viewed from the Icefields Parkway. Bow Glacier is an outflow glacier from the Wapta Icefield, which rests along the Continental Divide, and runoff from the glacier supplies water to Bow Lake and the Bow River. The glacier is credited for creating the Bow Valley before retreating at the end of the last glacial maximum.</p><br>
<p>Since the end of the Little ice age in 1850, Bow Glacier has been a state of steady retreat overall. Between 1850 and 1953, the glacier retreated an estimated 1,100 m, and since that period, there has been further retreat which has left a newly formed lake at the terminal moraine at the glacial snout. Sedimentation has also increased in Bow Lake due to increased erosion of soil that had been protected by the glacier, creating a small sediment delta at the western end of the lake.</p><br>
<p>Lohagad  is one of the many hill forts of Maharashtra state in India. Situated close to the hill station Lonavala and 52 km northwest of Pune, Lohagad rises to an elevation of 1,033 m above sea level. The fort is connected to the neighboring Visapur fort by a small range. The fort was under the Maratha empire for the majority of time, with a short period of 5 years under the Mughal empire.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lohagad has a long history with several dynasties occupying it at different periods of time: Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Yadavas, Bahamanis, Nizams, Mughals and Marathas. Shivaji captured it in 1648 CE, but he was forced to surrender it to the Mughals in 1665 CE by the Treaty of Purandar. Shivaji recaptured the fort in 1670 CE and used it for keeping his treasury. This fort was used to keep the loot from Surat. Later in Peshwa time Nana Phadnavis used this fort for living for sometime and built several structures in the fort such as a big tank and a step-well.</p><br>
<p>The fort has been declared as a protected monument by the government.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and Climate</h2><br>
<p>Lohagad is part of the Western Ghats. It rises to an elevation of 1,033 m above sea level, and is located to the southwest of the larger Visapur fort. The range divides the basins of the Indrayani and Pavana rivers. Lohagad overlooks the Pavana reservoir, located to the south of the mountain. The hill extends to the northwest to a fortified spur, called Vinchukata (Scorpion&#39;s tail) because of its resembling shape. The four large gates of Lohagad are still in good condition and reasonably intact.</p><br>
<p>During the monsoon, the top of the fort is covered with mist and clouds and becomes particularly wet with growing moss. The roads and trails leading to the hill are quite slippery at this time of the year and precautions are necessary to be taken while venturing the routes.</p><br>
<h2>Accessibility</h2><br>
<p>Lohagad fort can be accessed by various modes of travel. The nearest airport is the Pune International Airport. The proposed Navi Mumbai International Airport will serve as the nearest airport in the coming future.</p><br>
<p>The nearest train station is Malavli, which can be accessed by suburban trains between Lonavala and Pune. The nearest major train station is Lonavala, on the Mumbai-Pune railway line. Lohagad is connected by the Mumbai-Pune Highway and can also be accessed from Paud via Kolvan and Dudhiware Khind for all vehicles.</p><br>
<p>People can also hike all the way to the fort. Bhaja Caves is on the way to Lohagad if a small diversion is taken. This walk is a particular favorite of trekkers, especially in the monsoon season. It is a simple, very scenic and pleasant trek and the distance from Malavli and Lohagad can be covered in around two hours. A tar road exists all the way to the top from Malavli station and one can hire a tempo or cab to the top. The best season to visit the fort is in the monsoons. It is absolutely safe and many vendors selling onion fritters and lemonade are present by the roadside. One can cut across the hills as well. However it is not recommended to play in the waterfall as there is a risk of slippage and injury.</p><br>
<p>A variety of birds and insects can also be spotted in these hills.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby attractions</h2><br>
<p>Bhaja Caves - 2 km from Malavli, once home to Buddhist monks.</p><br>
<p>Karla Caves</p><br>
<p>Lonavala - 20 km, a famous and scenic hill station.</p><br>
<p>Aamby Valley City - 22 km from Lonavala.</p><br>
